titled, "The Bookbinder," in their "Industrial Library." Perhaps some other correspondent may be able to give more definite information.-N.

102. Gyroscope. · In "Recreative Science," No. I., price 6d., an article of some length, explanatory of this instrument, will be found. It may yet be usefully employed to prove and illustrate several important astronomical truths regarding force, motion, &c.

104. The Theory of Civilization has occupied much of the attention of thinking men. A very excellent paper on the general question-civilizationattributed to Albany Fonblanque, appears in the London and Westminster Review for April, 1836. A definition of what is meant by the history of civilization will be found in Sir G. Cornewall Lewis's "Methods of Observation and Reasoning in Politics" (28s.), vol. i. p. 305. Chapters XXII. and XXVII. of the same book contain many excellent remarks on and facts regarding civilization, and the bibliography of the subject is pretty well exhausted in the notes to these chapters. Guizot's "Civilization in Europe" (2s. 6d.) is a well-known, able, and readable book. F. von. Schlegel's "Lectures on the Philosophy of History" (Bohn, 3s. 6d.), Hegel's แ Philosophy of History" (Bohn, 5s.). exhibit the subject from a German stand-point; as do also the more elaborate works of Wachsmuth and of Adelung. Kames' "Sketches of Man," Miller's "Philosophy of History," Millar "On Civil Government," Dr. Adam Ferguson's work on "Refinement." James Dunbar's "Essays on the History of Mankind," several of Hume's Essays, Arnold's "Lectures on Modern History (15s.), T. M'Cullagh's "Use and Study of History," and J. S. Mill's "Political Economy" (30s.), are all easily accessible to the English reader. Volney, Montesquieu, Buchez ("Introduction to the Science of History"), Roux-Ferrand ("History of the Progress of Civilization in Europe "), and Daunon ("Course of Historical Studies ") are among the best French writers. Besides the German

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writers above mentioned, useful information may be gained by a perusal of Heeren's and Niebuhr's works (many of which are translated into English or French). Müller's "Historical Criticism" is valuable, as are also Leo's "Universal History," Ruh's History of the Middle Ages," Rehm's "History of the Middle Ages," Spittler's" History of the European States," Hüllman's "Cities in the Middle Ages," &c. "A Historical Analysis of Christian Civilization," by L. R. de Vericour (a Frenchman who writes in English), was published by Chapman in 1850 (10s. 6d.) Hallam's "Europe in the Middle Ages" (24s.) is replete with the results of careful investigation, and rich with thought. Carlyle's and Macaulay's essays On History," though differing widely in their matter and manner, are worthy of careful perusal. Several articles on "History," the "Philosophy of History," "Historic Criticism," &c., have appeared in the pages of the British Controversialist itself, which may be usefully read. The true theory of civilization has not as yet, we believe, been discovered, nor has its history been adequately written. A thoughtful perusal of any history will soon start such a host of reflections in the reader's mind as will work out for him a holier and nobler theory of civilization than books can give. One vigorous shoot of thought springing up in a man's own mind is worth a thousand hothouse growths planted by mere reading. To the thinker alone does Clio reveal her choicest secrets, and unroll "the map of days outworn" with an explanatory index.-N. L.

SUPPORT OF

AFFIRMATIVE.

Garibaldi is fighting under the banner of liberty against a world-wide execrated despot; and although, as lovers of peace, we would rather have seen liberty extended by moral means, yet, as the battle has already unavoidably commenced, the sympathies of Englishmen -a liberty-loving people-must be with Garibaldi; and doubtless they ought and will render that assistance which the law and ability admits of, and the case requires.-LUTHER.

The inherent love of political freedom, and the determination to possess and maintain it, which characterizes Englishmen, may be said to have greatly contributed to place this nation in the position it now occupies in the world; and as it is for freedom and not fancy, for liberty and not lucre, for justice as opposed to jobbery, that Garibaldi fights, his mission cannot fail to excite the sympathy of Englishmen, and consequently entitle his expedition to their support.-G. A. H. E.

England being the land of liberty, it may naturally be inferred that her sons are lovers of freedom, and would do anything to promote its extension. The expedition of Garibaldi is, in our opinion, one which is intended to burst the bonds of tyranny, and untie its cruel shackles. The man has proved himself a brother to all who would see a tyrant overthrown; and we cannot, therefore, understand why Englishmen should not aid him in his praiseworthy undertakings.-BETA.

Wherever oppression exists, wherever tyranny plants its iron heel, there is a spot to which the sympathies of Britain will certainly be directed. It is not always possible or proper for us to interfere, either by moral or physical

intervention. The safety of nations generally makes this not only a maxim, but a law. But when a native of the oppressed country starts up, dashes aside the yoke, and strikes for freedom, he then becomes a power recognizable without any transgression of the international law. Garibaldi has been treated with by the Neapolitans, who, in that way, acknowledge him an independent power; and to which side will a free country lean, when watching a struggle between violence, oppression, and brutal tyranny (we use the words advisedly), and freedom and right government? As a matter of course, to the free side. Then let us send every assistance, both material and in the shape of sympathy. Let us exclaim,— "Strike till the last armed foe expires;

Strike for your altars and your fires;
Strike for the green graves of your
sires;

God and your native land.”-
LYNDOCH.

Any man who honestly endeavours to rescue his fellow-countrymen from the bondage of tyranny, deserves not only the support but the sympathy of all who bear the honoured name of Eng lishmen. Are not the people of this country looking with thrilling interest to what Garibaldi is now doing for the sake of liberty in Italy? The base and treacherous Bourbons have used every cruelty which human ingenuity could devise; and beneath the iron heel of despotism they have trampled down that love of liberty which is the natural instinct of human nature; and though it may wane for a time under the blighting and destroying influence of tyranny, it needs but such an influence as Garibaldi can give to rekindle it into a bright and irresistible flame. This

has been proved by the wonderful exertions the people have made, the marvellous success which has crowned their efforts, and the brilliant victories which Garibaldi and his brave co-patriots have won wherever they have fought. Henceforth victorious liberty and freedom are to rule with justice and with equity, and bright days are yet in store for suffering Italy; and soon the hearts of her children shall beat with a new joy, and the horizon of their existence shall be as bright and unclouded as her matchless skies.-S. T.W.

It is against the nature of Englishmen to stand unmoved at the cry of oppression; and, therefore, we cannot stand unmoved while the sons of Italy are asking us to help them to snap the chains of their oppressors.-J. R.

The expedition of Garibaldi does deserve the support of Englishmen, because the mission he has undertaken is noble, just, and good. Many words could not, I think, convey a more favourable opinion than the three I have used. -TNEJBOR.

Is not Garibaldi a true patriot, who, for the love of country, and hatred of a government which is the incarnation of tyranny and imbecility, has risked life and honour in the struggle for liberty, and the total overthrow of a decayed race of despots whose time is come? And such being the case, is he not worthy of the support of all free nations, and especially of England and Englishmen? This is a question which can only receive one answer, and that answer must be, yes.-CASTLESIDE.

England has herself had so many fights for liberty that she can really understand the uprising in Sicily. Freedom is a glorious thing, and any cause for emancipating a kingdom is worthy of the best support and encouragement

of every one. The day will perhaps come, when despotic governments will give place to higher and better oneswhen all the countries of Europe and Asia will be free. Till then let us fight the battle for true liberty and freedom of thought.—F. S. M.

One reason why England should assist Garibaldi in his attempt to overthrow the strongholds of tyranny, is to be obtained from a consideration of the fearful effects produced by the tyrant's rule. Tyranny takes away the liberty of the subject; robs the prostrate people of hope and energy; saps the very foundations of all moral rectitude and honourable feeling; annihilates genuine religion; and drives the miserable subjects of oppression to seek for relief from their bitter pangs in the madness and forgetfulness of the passing hour. Again, we think that nations possess an inherent right to rise and shake off any rule that has passed certain limits of patience and endurance. Can we be astonished that the frightful scenes exposed to view in the "chamber of horrors," should arouse the spirits of the warm-blooded?-T. L. P.

When boys at school fall out and quarrel, there is generally one of them, who is taller and stronger than the rest, who jealously guards fair play, and with earnest courage rescues the weaker boys from the blows of the bully of the school. To my mind, an affirmative reply to the Topic assumes a similarity to an expression of approval of the boy's noble-heartedness in saving his weaker companions from being the victims of oppression. Italy is in the hands of tyrants, and, consequently, in a state of slavery. Garibaldi is the hero who succours the weak, and delivers them from their mental and physical bondage, and this from no selfish end, but simply from the patriotic love freedom. He is the noblehearted boy; but when he lacks the height and strength of the oppressor, and has the earnest will to overcome him, then sympathy is the more enlisted in his cause. Upon these grounds I think that the expedition with which Garibaldi has identified himself, deserves our support.-J. C.

We think it to be the duty of those who have successfully striven under the banner of liberty, to aid, to the utmost of their power, any nation who

seeks to free herself from tyranny. Would it not be inconsistent and cowardly of Englishmen, who boast of their freedom, and urge others to obtain it, if they refused a helping hand to a people most slavishly enthralled, who have risen for their lives and liberty? Did they do so, we are sure so noble and patriotic a spirit as Garibaldi's would tremble at our heartlessness, and scorn us as a band of sentimentalists.-IOTA.

Let indignation rest on those men, unworthy to bear the name of Britons, who can calmly and dispassionately view, while they are enjoying the blessings of freedom, the haughty tyrant pursue, with unrelenting heart, his fellow-men, and crush their very souls by the brutal aid of the fiends in human shape in his pay!-MARCUS.

They who enjoy the blessings of liberty, whose fetters have been broken, and who breathe the pure air of freedom, purchased by the blood of the brave, the patriotic, and the pious, should be first to support the man who

แ Swears, beneath God's burning eye, To break his country's chains, or die." J. K. C.

The words, 66 Garibaldi," Sicily," cannot but arouse in the breast of every Englishman the burning desire to assist in the glorious cause of Italian emancipation; and although we cannot render physical aid, we ought, as a duty we owe to Providence for the happy position which we, as Englishmen, occupy, to do all in our power to further the cause of the long-oppressed Sicilians.-S. R.

The innumerable calamities ensuing to a nation from the attack of an outward force, and an ill-concerted revolution, make it a matter of some diffidence to many in hazarding an opinion; but however that may be, there cannot, we think, in the present instance, be one who wishes for the emancipation of his fellow-beings from the galling chains of monarchial or empirical tyranny, that will refrain from giving his support to the expedition of the famous guerilla chief, Garibaldi. Dictated by the purest

patriotism, sanctioned by the future interests of liberty and humanity, it is calculated (if successful) to establish in greater security the peace of Europe, and to extinguish those agitations which have so often arisen, to the annoyance of every nation possessing diplomatic relations with the continent.

The antecedents of Garibaldi show him to be actuated, not like Louis Napoleon, by a sordid avarice, and a personal ambition. In a chequered career of romance and vicissitude, Garibaldi has as yet proved the purity of motive and unstained character of those life-actions of his which have identified him on the dark yet bright page of his country's history. His unswerving loyalty, undying patriotism, and magnanimity, mark him as one in whose breast perfidy and treachery could find no home. A man like Garibaldi, known as the present knows the past, seems alike incapable of taking a wrongful side, or acting in any part other than to elevate mankind. This, then, is our sufficient guarantee that his present expedition deserves the support of Englishmen. What is the great characteristic of our own country? Is it not its Christianity and its heroism? and does not Gari- t baldi eminently represent both these virtues? His life has been one long war against oppression and tyranny. Guided by the principles of Christianity, he has heroically fought to regain for his brothers the glorious heritage bequeathed to universal man. England has struggled, long and hard, to hold that glorious heritage (liberty); and, not unmindful of the intensity of the fight, and the preciousness of the prize, does she pray with fervour that nations may have strength given them from on high to carry on the holy war, and to plant, though it be with bleeding hands, the standard of victory and freedom on every citadel; for with such a history, and such a position, England, who has bought her freedom at the price of her sons' blood, not to say "God speed" to brothers who fight for birthright, such as she holds so dear,

would prove herself an ingrate above all ingrates;—that is why never should cause be dearer to English hearts than the present expedition of Garibaldi, for whose safety and preservation, at heaven's footstool, should England bedew her morning prayer.-D. S.

Englishmen have ever been foremost in extending their support to those great spirits whose aim has been to crush tyranny and emancipate the downtrodden from the thrall of bondage. Shall they now be false to the aspirations that have heretofore made every nation, upon whom the blight of tyranny has fallen, look to England as their star of hope and their haven of rest? What man in this epoch of European history deserves the support of Englishmen so well as Garibaldi? His name shines above all other names; his action in the cause of Italian nationality stamps him as a patriot in whom the love of country supersedes all other love; we behold in him the stuff of which tyrants are afraid; his name sounds the knell of their departing power, and the strongholds of their oppression totter to their fall. As we love and venerate the departed great ones of our country-whose memories are enshrined in our hearts, who sealed by their blood the freedom of England, and taught our tottering steps to climb to our present greatness,-when we recall the names of a Hampden, a Cromwell, and a Russell, we see in a more noble and exalted form the patriot Garibaldi. Sardinia's king, seated on his now thricepowerful throne, may truckle to France's tyrant.

Count Cavour, checkmated in his diplomacy by the honesty of Italy's uncorruptible patriot, may envy his greatness and fulminate reports derogatory to his honour. But Garibaldi, undismayed by frowns, and unconciliated by overtures-swerving not from his purpose-his great soul looks forward to the goal of his wishes and of his hopes. As Englishmen love patriotism and freedom they will support Garibaldi. Because they venerate the patriot names of their own land, and as they detest the

VOL. IV.

deeds of Sicily's late hated tyrant, they will give Garibaldi their support.— D. R. R.

The events now occurring in southern Italy are becoming the general subject of discussion in every assembly in Europe. And when we bring to the bar of our deliberative judgment the state of the theatre of conflict prior to the first efforts of the great conqueror of tyranny and oppression, the endurance of hardships and misery by the ill-fated Italians could not be borne with patience within or passive inactivity without. The attempts at emancipation demand from every son of happy Old Englandand, indeed, from every votary of freedom-aid, so far as his pecuniary or other strength will contribute. The funds now being raised in England for the purpose of sending succour to the hero who deserves so well of his country, cannot be expended in a holier cause -the liberation of the inmates of the fœtid dungeons of Italian cruelty; and the outpouring of the blood of the brave is the price that must be paid for the completion of so worthy and much admired a cancellation of the decrees of scandalous oppression beyond all sufferance. Let the sword of freedom be energetically supported to the utmost, so that the fullest effect may be given to the worthy deeds of the greatest warrior of that country which is the garden of Europe, and which the soldiers of Hannibal viewed with such ecstasy from the summit of the Alps. -S. F. T.

NEGATIVE.

Here is the law of Britain on the subject:-" If any person whatever, within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or in any part of his Majesty's dominions elsewhere, or in any country, colony, settlement, island, or place, belonging to, or subject to, his Majesty, shall hire, retain, engage, or procure, or shall attempt or endeavour to hire, retain, engage, or procure, any person or persons whatever to enlist, or to enter or engage to enlist,