matter. The states that constitute each individual consciousness have their cause in the organism as affected by external objects. Without an organism and objects external to it there can be no consciousness; and consciousness originates, as is obvious in the case of each individual life, in an organism that is at first not conscious, while, again, its higher states arise out of its lower ones. Accordingly, there can be no worldconsciousness; for there are no objects external to the world by which such a consciousness could be determined: nor can there be any "intellectual intuition" such as Kant tried to make conceivable; for this is inconsistent with the origin of consciousness in "non-consciousness" and of all higher mental processes in sense. As admitting neither a superhuman "intellectual intuition" nor a "world-soul," the author finds himself compelled to reject both theism and pantheism (identified by him with the doctrine of a world-soul); and, in his preface, he declares himself an "atheist". On the other hand, he finds that Kant, in limiting knowledge to phenomena, failed to arrive at the true conclusion as regards the real world, that its parts are infinitely divisible and that its extension is infinite. When this conclusion is reached, the knowledge that immeasurable existence is a power superior to all thought tranquillises individual desires, and has the effect of a religion in so far as it makes each man feel that he is in his natural place as a "free member of the universe" (pp. 102-3).

Treu und Frei. Gesammelte Reden und Vorträge über Juden und Judenthum von Prof. Dr. M. LAZARUS. Leipzig: C. F. Winter, 1887. Pp. vi., 355. ·

These addresses by Prof. Lazarus on Jewish subjects are of very varied interest, and fulfil exactly the author's purpose of giving a picture of the intellectual and public life of the Jews in Germany during the present century. The author himself is an adherent of liberal Judaism in religion, and many of the addresses deal with questions of religious reform. The most directly philosophical are perhaps the two on Moses Mendelssohn (delivered in 1886 on the occasion of the centenary of his death), but the influence of the philosophical point of view is visible everywhere. As readers of MIND may infer from what has been set forth of the author's work in former notices, his treatment of questions of race and nationality is of special interest. The second address, entitled "What is a Nation?" ("Was heisst National?"), and delivered in 1879, could not have proceeded from anyone but a psychologist who had made a special study of linguistics. By his conception of "the common mind" in its relation to language, Prof. Lazarus is led to regard national types as formed by common influences conveyed through institutions, and especially through literature, and as only determined to a minor extent by physical heredity. The Jews, he holds, have no longer a separate "nationality," although in consequence of their race they form an element with an individual character in each of the nations under whose institutions they have grown up, and by whose literature they have been nourished. And as they are not separate because of their common descent, so they are not separate because of their common religion. Divisions of race and religion are not by themselves sufficient to make a division of nationalities. The circumstance that this doctrine is enforced in view of the anti-Semitic agitation in Germany does not diminish its philosophical interest. The two addresses on Moses Mendelssohn, already referred to, deal with his relations both to contemporary Judaism and to the German Enlightenment. In the second of the two there is an especially noteworthy passage on the intellectual relations of the Jews to the Middle Age and afterwards to modern European culture (pp. 210-12).

Von Dr. ERICH ADICKES.
Pp. viii., 174.

Kant's Systematik als systembildender Factor. Berlin: Mayer & Müller, 1887. The author's task is to separate the imperishable from the perishable part of Kant. The perishable part he finds to be all that depends on the "external systematic form "; Kant's predilection for system having caused him to place many of his thoughts out of their true order for the sake of symmetry, and even to introduce entirely new thoughts for the sake of filling up the form he had once chosen. Dr. Adickes accordingly proceeds to rearrange the displaced thoughts in their true order and to remove altogether the thoughts that are not truly Kant's, but are there entirely through the exigencies of the system. Having thus, in the case of each of the chief works, "made the modifications effected by the external form harmless," he has next to "shape anew the contents of the particular writings from within outwards". This double service he proceeds to perform for the Kritik der reinen Vernunft, Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft, Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft and Kritik der Urtheilskraft. In the case of the other writings, the modifications produced by the external form are, he thinks, unessential.

Die drei Fragen Kants.

Von Dr. H. ROMUNDT. Berlin Nicolaische Verlags-Buchhandlung (R. Stricker), 1887. Pp. 64. Dr. Romundt's previous expositions of Kant have been noticed in MIND X. 626, xi. 134, 590. He here discusses Kant's three questions-What can I know?" 66 'What ought I to do?" "What may I hope ?" The sum of his argument is that Kant has completed Luther's work as a Church reformer. The Church is to be regarded as "a means to the realisation of perfect good".

66

Begriff und Sitz der Seele. Von Dr. EUGEN VON SCHMIDT, Mitglied der psychologischen Gesellschaft an der Universität zu Moskau. Heidelberg: G. Weiss, 1887. Pp. iv., 76.

66

This is a discussion, from a basis of wide knowledge of what has already been thought and written, on the problems of The Conception and Seat of the Soul". As regards the first problem, the author's conclusion is that "neither Materialism, nor Dualism, nor Sensualism (e.g., with the capacity of feeling as general property of matter) is scientifically satisfactory, but only a monistic Spiritualism". The more distinctive part of the essay is that which concerns the second problem. Here the author arrives at the conclusion that the seat of the soul must be somewhere in the part of the medulla oblongata called by Flourens "le nœud de la vie," and that it must be a mathematical point, not varying from moment to moment, but fixed. This point is the centre from which proceed influences that maintain the life of the body. It is also the central point of feeling, thought and will. As the life of the individual ends at a particular moment of time, so it vanishes out of this particular point of space. In a chapter on "Consequences for Personal Immortality" (pp. 36-9), the author develops a theory of the "involution" of the "personal," or completely centralised, soul of man at the moment of death, and its new evolution in another part of the universe under new physical conditions. Side by side with this speculation he places the theory that "the world in the most general sense (the Macrocosm) is the self-development of the infinite Spirit" (p. 38).

Versuch nach einer zusammenfassenden Darstellung der Pädagogischen Ansichten John Locke's in ihrem Zusammenhange mit seinem philosophischen System. Von J. GAVANESCUL. Berlin: G. Schade (0. Francke), 1887. Pp. 84.

The author, a Roumanian by birth, has just taken his Doctor's degree at Berlin with this essay as his inaugural dissertation. Notwithstanding all that has been written on Locke, it was a piece of work remaining to be done to bring his educational doctrine into relation (not always obvious) with his underlying philosophical theory. At the same time the author, whose main interest is after all pædagogical, has been able, by careful study of the Conduct of the Understanding, the Treatises of Government, and the Letters on Toleration, as well as of the fundamental Essay, to add not a few other "Thoughts" of Locke's "upon Education" to those set down, without too much system, in the famous treatise of that name. He also throws not a little light upon particular points of Locke's doctrine by a number of suggestive historical references earlier and later. Among his Berlin teachers, the author singles out Prof. v. Giżycki as the one to whose friendly counsel he has been most beholden, and his excellent and exhaustive treatment of the subject is doubtless not a little due to the stimulus received from that expert in all that pertains to the history of English thought.

(1) Locke's Verhältniss zu Descartes. Eine von der philosophischen Fakul tät der Berliner Universität am 3 VIII. 1886 gekrönte Preisschrift von ROBERT SOMMER, Dr. phil., Cand. Med. Berlin: Mayer u. Müller, 1887. Pp. 63.

(2) Ueber die Abhängigkeit Locke's von Descartes. Eine philosophiegeschichtliche Studie von Dr. GEORG GEIL, Strassburg: J. H. Ed. Heitz (Heitz u. Mündel Nachfolger), 1887. Pp. 99.

(3) John Locke's Lehre von den Vorstellungen, aus dem Essay concerning Human Understanding zusammengestellt u. untersucht von Dr. EDUARD MARTINAK, wirkl. Gymnasiallehrers am Landesgymnasium Leoben. Gräz: Leuschner u. Lubensky, 1887. Pp. 35.

(4) Die Voraussetzungen welche den Empirismus Locke's, Berkeley's u. Hume's zum Idealismus führten. Inaugural-Dissertation &c. zu Berlin. Von JOHANNES RAFFEL. Berlin Mayer u. Müller, 1887. Pp. 46.

These four memoirs may be taken together as showing, with the dissertation just noticed, how great and widespread the interest in Locke's philosophy has again become in Germany, after a century's intermission. (1) and (2) are each concerned with the question of its relation to the foregone philosophy of Descartes, and they come, after careful inquiry over the whole field, to practically the same conclusionwhich is the one common to all those who have ever before investigated the question without prejudice. This is, that the relation, however unavowed, is a very close and intimate one indeed-closer in some respects of first importance than any that can be traced between Locke and either of his great English predecessors. Neither essayist overlooks this latter aspect of the question, and both therefore dissent emphatically from the usual German view that modern philosophy falls at once and naturally into two diverse currents-from Bacon through Hobbes and Locke to Hume, and from Descartes through Spinoza and Leibniz to Wolff-which Kant first succeeds in bringing together. Of the two, Dr. Geil, though his materials throughout are more crudely presented, pays the greater attention to the question of the English succession; but this does not keep him from making, at p. 97, the curious slip of representing Lewes as having declared the opinion that Hobbes had never read Locke ("dass Hobbes den Locke nie gelesen habe") !

In (3), Dr. Martinak confines himself for the present to a detailed

appreciation of the logical import of Locke's doctrine of Ideas, leaving over the doctrine of Judgment. The inquiry (which is much more detailed than the number of pages would suggest, these being large and closely printed) leaves him full of admiration that Locke should have been able to elaborate a doctrine at once so comprehensive and so profound.

The author of (4) is a not less careful student of the English masters, though his object is to use their shortcomings to point a moral against the Experientialism of the present day. In this view it is of interest to note that for Hume he works upon Green's edition, at least as regards that division of the Human Nature which is bound up with the now celebrated General Introduction' in vol. i.

Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft. Abhandlung des Communismus und des Socialismus als Empirischer Culturformen. Von FERDINAND TOENNIES. Leipzig: Fues's Verlag (R. Reisland), 1887. Pp. xxx., 294. Striking as the title of this work is, it fails to suggest what an amount of hard general thinking, both psychological and philosophical, is involved in the author's inquiry. He first took up his theme-the position of the Individual between the Communism proved to have been the human manner of life in the far past and the Socialism destined to come in the future-on seeking to qualify for the facultas docendi at Kiel in 1881; and since then all his studies, philosophical as well as more specially sociological, have been directed to its farther elaboration. In the general spirit of Spinoza-but a Spinoza re-incarnated as Schopenhauer with all the added insight of a century and a half of philosophical development— he aims at finding a rational interpretation of the huge mass of facts that have been established by modern inquirers regarding the prehistoric condition and the historic evolution of mankind. This he does in three parts: the first (pp. 1-96) giving his detailed theory of "Community and of "Society" in their opposition to (or distinction from) one another; the second (pp. 97-194), under the general title "Wesenwille u. Willkür," affording a detailed psychological view of the various forms of human Will, with illustration of the difference between universal nisus and developed volition, and survey of their empirical outcome in the life of men; the third (pp. 195-274) tracing out the first lines of a doctrine of Natural Right; whereupon follows (pp. 275-94) a concluding section of "Result and Outlook". Throughout the treatise the influence of English writers more especially Sir Henry Maine, with Mr. Spencer-upon the author is well marked, as might be expected of one who has before given proof of such intimate knowledge of Hobbes, the father of English publicists. On another occasion, it is hoped that Critical Notice of this important work may follow.

RECEIVED also:

Faith and Conduct, Lond., Macmillan, pp. xiv., 387.

W. Munk, Euthanasia, Lond., Longmans, pp. viii., 105.

G. J. Romanes, L'Intelligence des Animaux, 2 Tomes, Paris, F. Alcan, pp. xl., 230; 254.

C. Secrétan, La Civilisation et la Croyance, F. Alcan, pp. 474.

A. V. de Lima, L'Homme selon le Transformisme, F. Alcan, pp. 211.

(Continued on p. 152.)

VIII.-NOTES.

HEGEL'S CORRESPONDENCE.

Herr Hegel's edition of his father's correspondence (see MIND xii. 474) adds a large proportion of hitherto unpublished letters, both by and to Hegel, to those which, having been printed in the Vermischte Schriften and in Rosenkranz's biography, are here republished in chronological order and with the advantages of good type and paper. The collection now before us contains, so far as I am aware, the finest and most characteristic of Hegel's letters; and though not absolutely completesome letters which have been printed elsewhere being merely referred to-enables us to follow the great philosopher pretty continuously from his boyhood to his death. By help of prefatory notes to the three divisions of the work, and of occasional explanations prefixed to particular letters, the correspondence has been made quite intelligible without the use of a detailed biography. The picture put before us is that of a life immersed in the interests of a professional teacher, of a lover of art, of a friend, husband and father. The correspondence is not primarily a record of an intellectual development; and the spirit which prompted the volcanic outpourings of the early letters to Schelling appears throughout the later life chiefly in the grim humour of the foe to all unreason, and in an occasional eloquent declaration of his faith in culture and in the march of time. It is chiefly, I think, in these "purple patches" that the reader not previously acquainted with Hegel may find something attractive; but anyone who cares to see at work the actual struggles which confirm a philosopher's creed will forgive, for example, the dry detail of the educational conflict in Bavaria (Letters to Niethammer, passim) for the insight which it affords into Hegel's real working faith in the rational spirit of the community as the one sacred thing.

Before passing to the letters which appear now for the first time, I may observe that many of the old letters are of extreme interest, and are probably more accessible here than in the Vermischte Schriften or in Rosenkranz. Such is No. 3 (I refer to the letters by the numbers attached to them in the collection) to Schelling, revealing the enthusiasm for reason and freedom which animated Hegel at 25, and furnishing, in my opinion, a key to the interpretation of much in his later writings. It is this letter to which Prof. Wallace (in Encyclopædia Britannica, article "Hegel") refers as ending with the sentence," Our war-cry shall be Reason and Freedom, and our rallying-point the invisible Church!" No. 4 is a letter to Schelling in the same spirit. The letters to Sinclair and Duboc, Nos. 117 and 191, are of interest as private letters on philosophical subjects-rare in Hegel's later years. The three sets of letters to his wife written on the tours to Vienna, the Netherlands, and Paris, show Hegel as a happy art- and music-loving tourist. "I shall not leave Vienna," he writes, "as long as I have money enough for a seat at the Italian opera besides my journey home." All these letters had been published before, wholly or in extracts, but of course are better read here, complete, and in their chronological order. In the new letters I note the following among the main points of interest.

1. Five hitherto unpublished letters from Hegel to Schelling, the last, No. 32 (from Bamberg, May, 1807), being according to the editor's