a. A noun and its pronoun are sometimes used as nominatives to the same verb; as, "My banks they are furnished with bees."

b. Intransitive verbs are sometimes made transitive; as,

"Virtue still may hope her promis'd crown.”

c. The past tense is occasionally used for the perfect participle; as, "he begun," for "he began."

d. The simple form of the first and third persons of the present indicative, is sometimes used for the imperative; as, "Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight."

"Fall he that must, beneath his rival's arms."

6. Poetry admits of many elliptical expressions. Thus, a. The article is frequently omitted; as,

"The brink of haunted stream."

b. Nouns are sometimes omitted in interrogative sentences; as, "Lives there who loves his pain?" that is, "Lives there a man."

c. Sometimes the antecedent is omitted; as,

"Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys."

d. Sometimes the relative is omitted; as,

"For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise."

e. Verbs are frequently omitted, especially such as express address or answer; as,

"To whom thus Adam;" that is, "To whom thus Adam spoke."

f. In compound tenses, the auxiliary is frequently used alone; as,

"Who does the best his circumstance allows,

Does well, acts nobly-angels could no more."

g. Prepositions are frequently omitted; as,

"He mourn'd no recreant friend ;" that is, "for no recreant friend."

END OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

THE FIGURES OF SPEECH are deviations either from the usual form or spelling of words, from their syntactical construction, or from their proper and literal meaning.

They are divided into 1st, the figures of Orthography; 2nd, of Syntax; and 3rd, of Rhetoric.

I.—FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

The figures of Orthography are deviations from the usual form or spelling of words, and consist of Elision, Prosthesis, Paragōge, Synaērěsis, Diaērěsis, and Tmesis.

1. Elision signifies cutting off a letter or syllable, either at the beginning, middle, or end of a word. Elision thus consists of three kinds, usually denominated Aphaeresis, Syncope, and Apocopě.

a. Aphaeresis takes away a letter or syllable from the beginning of a word; as, 'gan for began; 'gainst for against; 'plaint for complaint.

b. Syncopě rejects a letter or syllable from the middle of a word; as, lov'd for loved; se'nnight or sevennight.

c. Apocopě cuts off a letter or syllable from the end; as, th' for the; morn for morning; vale for valley; scant for scanty.

2. Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of a word; as, enchain, dispart, for chain, part.

3. Paragōgě adds a letter or syllable to the end; as, awaken for awake.

4. Synaeresis is the contraction of two vowels or of two syllables into one; as, ae in Israel, ie in alienate, pronounced as if written Is-ral, Al-ye-nate.

Two words, also, are frequently contracted into one; as, 'Tis for it is; 't was for it was; we'll for we will.

5. Diaērěsis is the division of one syllable into two, by placing the mark over the latter of two vowels; as, in zoology. It seldom, if ever, occurs in English.

6. Tmesis separates a compound word, by putting a word between; as, "To God ward," that is, "Toward God." The preceding figures are almost exclusively confined to Poetry.

II.-FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

The figures of Syntax are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Enăllåge, and Hyperbăton.

1. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to supply the regular or full construction.-See Syntax, Rule 20, page 109.

When different persons are jointly spoken of, the verb and pronoun agree with the first person rather than with the second, and with the second rather than with the third, by the figure called Syllepsis; thus, I and thou, I and he, are sylleptically the same as we; you and he, the same as ye or you.

Apposition signifies the concord existing between two or more nouns under the same regimen; as, "William the king."

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2. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words; as, “I went home full of a great many serious reflections." Here, the words a great many must be cancelled, as unnecessary. So, "this here," ," "that there," the words here and there must be omitted.

Pleonasm is a fault to be avoided in writing, except in expressions of earnestness of affirmation on an interesting subject, in solemn language, or in poetical description; as, "We have seen with our eyes;" "The sea-girt isle.'

Polysyndeton, or the repetition of a conjunction, is a figure employed when we wish to dwell on each particular; as, "Power, and wisdom, and goodness, shine forth in the works of creation."

Periphrasis is the use of several words to denote one object; as, "The juice of the grape," for wine. This figure is frequently necessary to render our meaning distinct.

3. Enǎllage is the use of one part of speech for another, and is confined to poetry; as, "Slow rises merit, when by poverty depressed."

4. Hyperbăton is the transposition of words; as, "Come, nymph demure." It frequently imparts energy to a sentence, and is very common in poetry.

III.-FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

The figures of Rhetoric are deviations from the proper and literal meaning of a word or phrase.

A word is said to be used literally, when it is employed to describe any thing according to the ordinary mode of expression. A word is used figuratively, when, though it retains its usual signification, it is applied in a manner different from its common application. When I use the word pillar as supporting an edifice, I employ it literally. But when I say of a man, "He is the pillar of the state," I use it figuratively. For though, in the latter example, the word pillar is used in its common signification, to denote that which supports something placed upon it, yet, it is applied to an object different from those to which it is usually applied. Instead of being applied to a solid mass of stone, &c., supporting a material edifice, it is applied to an intelligent being supporting the state.

Figures are frequently divided into Figures of Words and Figures of Thought.

Figures of Words are commonly called Tropes. A Trope consists in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original and primitive meaning, so that, if we alter the word, we destroy the figure. Thus, in the sentence, "Light ariseth to the upright in darkness;" the trope consists in "light and darkness" not being meant literally, but substituted for comfort and adversity, on account of some resemblance or analogy which light and darkness are supposed to bear to those conditions of life.

Figures of Thought suppose the words to be used in their proper and literal meaning, and the figure to consist in the turn of the sentiment. They appear in Exclamations, Interrogations, Apostrophes, and Comparisons; in which, were the words varied, or translated from one language into another, yet the same figure in the thought would be preserved. In the following pages, however, we shall consider tropes and figures as synonymous, and treat of them under the same head.

ORIGIN OF FIGURES. The names of sensible objects were, in all languages, the words most early introduced; and were, by degrees, extended to those mental objects of which men had more obscure conceptions, and to which they found it more difficult to assign distinct names. They borrowed, therefore, the name of some sensible idea when their imagination found any affinity between them. Thus, we speak of a piercing judgment, a clear head, a soft or a hard heart. We say also, inflamed by anger; swelled with pride; melted with grief; and these are almost the only significant words which we have for such ideas.

But necessity is not the only cause of the invention of Figures. They have arisen frequently from the influence which imagination possesses over language. Every object which makes any impression on the human mind, is constantly accompanied with certain circumstances and relations that strike us at the same time, and which may be considered as its accessaries. These accessaries often strike the imagination more than the principal idea itself. The imagination, therefore, instead of using the name of the principal idea which it means to express, employs in its place, the name of the accessary or correspondent idea, although the principal has a proper and wellknown name of its own. Hence, a great variety of figurative words obtain currency in all languages, from choice and not from necessity; and men of lively imaginations are constantly increasing the number.

THE ADVANTAGES OF FIGURES OF SPEECH. First, Figures of Speech enrich a language by rendering it more copious.-Secondly, They contribute to dignify our sentiments, particularly in poetry. Thus, to say of soldiers, that "they were brave and courageous," is to express ourselves simply; the sentiment is much more powerfully conveyed by Heber in the following line" Their limbs all iron, and their souls all flame."-Thirdly, Figures tend to illustrate a subject or throw light upon it. For, they frequently render an abstract conception, in some degree, an object of sense, by surrounding it with such circumstances as enable the mind to lay hold of it steadily, and contemplate it fully.- Fourthly, Figures sometimes contribute in producing conviction, as truth is thus conveyed to the mind in a more lively and forcible manner than it otherwise could be, as in the following example; "A heart boiling with

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violent passions will always send up infatuating fumes to the head." An image that thus presents so much congruity between a moral and a sensible idea, serves, like an argument from analogy, to enforce what the author asserts, and to induce belief.Fifthly, Whether we endeavour to raise sentiments of pleasure or aversion, we can always heighten the emotion by the figures which we introduce, by leading the imagination to a train either of agreeable or disagreeable, of exalting or debasing ideas, correspondent to the impression which we seek to make.

The following are the principal Figures of Rhetoric:Comparison or Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Antithesis, Allusion, Hyperbole, Irony, Paralepsis, Metonymy, Synecdoche or Comprehension, Personification or Prosopopeia, Apostrophe, Interrogation, Exclamation, Vision, Repeti

tion or Climax.

1. A Simile or Formal Comparison is the resemblance between two objects, expressed by the words like or as. Thus, we can say of a horse, "He is as swift as the wind;" and "He is as firm as a rock.”

of a man,

Here, the resemblance between the horse and the wind is in swiftness; between a man and a rock in strength.

Comparisons are unsuitable to the expressions of violent passion. Metaphors may, indeed, be allowable in such a situation; but the proper place for similes is in the style which is neither highly pathetic nor very humble. Care, also, should be taken that they are not introduced too abundantly, lest the style become disagreeably florid, and the ornaments lose their proper effect.

Rules for the Application of Similes.

RULE 1.-A Comparison must not be founded on a resemblance which is too obvious; nor on such as is too faint and

remote.

1. In all comparisons there must be found something new or surprising, in order to please and illustrate. As nothing new or surprising can exist between individuals of the same species, we must search for these resemblances between things of different species. Milton has violated this Rule, when he compares Eve's bower in Paradise to the arbour of Pomona, as every one sees that one arbour must, in several respects, resemble another arbour.

2. Among similes that are faulty, from the too great obviousness of the likeness, may be ranked those that are taken from objects that are become trite and familiar. Such as, the similes of a hero to a lion;' of a person in sorrow to a flower drooping its head;' of 'virtue to the sun or stars,' and many others of the same kind.

2. As Comparisons are intended to explain, embellish, or elevate a subject, they must not be drawn from objects of which only few people can form clear and distinct ideas.

The Comparisons introduced into a discourse must always be more familiar than the object intended to be illustrated. In determining on the familiarity of an object, regard must be had to the persons addressed. In productions addressed to literary men, objects of resemblance might be brought to view which would be quite unsuitable in writings intended for children or the unlearned. But, even in a discourse addressed to a learned audience, it would be improper to introduce as an object of comparison, a principle in science, or a process in some art, which is comparatively of little importance, or the knowledge of which is confined to very few.

3. Comparisons must be natural and suitable to the subject.