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banks, with a constant stream." This picture, however, would have been faultless, if to the Nile some particular river had been opposed. Sentences thus constructed, when introduced with propriety, and not recurring too often, have a sensible beauty. But we must avoid directing our attention too much to this beauty. It ought to be used only when the comparison or opposition of objects naturally leads to it; otherwise, when such a construction as this is uniformly aimed at, our compositions will become tiresome to the ear, and plainly discover affectation.

5. Parentheses should, in general, be avoided, and the thought, implied by the parenthetical member, be transferred to the following sentence.

When the parentheses are very short, and serve as necessary explanations, they may be admitted, but these must be so judiciously introduced as to glide, at once, into our conception, without compelling the reader to review what preceded the interruption. The parenthesis in the following sentence is correctly introduced;

"And was the ransom paid? It was; and paid
(What can exalt the bounty more?) for thee."

In the following sentence, however, there is an evident impropriety in its use. "If your hearts secretly reproach you for the wrong choice you have made (as there is time for repentance and retreat; and a return to wisdom is always honourable), bethink yourselves that the evil is not irreparable." This sentence would be better if it were divided into two; thus, "If your hearts secretly reproach you for the wrong choice which you have made, bethink yourselves that the evil is not irreparable. Still there is time for repentance and retreat; and a return to wisdom is always honourable."

ENERGY OR VIVACITY OF STYLE.

Energy or Vivacity of Style, comprehends every thing that conduces to stimulate the attention, to impress strongly on the mind the arguments adduced, to excite the imagination, and to arouse the feelings.

Energy or Vivacity of Style depends, first, on the Choice of Words; secondly, on their Number; and, thirdly, on their Arrangement.

1. The Choice of Words.

1. a. Particular instead of General terms.-Nothing can contribute more to enliven the expression, than that all the words employed be as particular and determinate in their signification, as will suit the nature and object of the discourse. The more general the terms are, the fainter will be the picture; the more special they are, the brighter it will be.

The same sentiments may be expressed with equal justness, and even perspicuity, in the former mode, as in the latter; but, as the colouring will, in that case, be more languid, it cannot give equal pleasure to the imagination, and, consequently, will not contribute so much either to fix the attention or to impress the memory.

b. In philosophical subjects, in which the understanding alone is addressed, general terms are the most appropriate. But, in subjects, in which the imagination and the passions

are addressed, terms must be chosen which are as particular as possible, as it is solely by these that the object can be vividly depicted.

Thus, "They sank as lead in the mighty waters, says Moses, when speaking of the Egyptians, in the song occasioned by the miraculous passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea. Had he used general, instead of particular terms, and said, "They fell as metal in the mighty waters," the difference in the effect would have been very great. In the former sentence, to sink is the species, as it implies only falling or moving downwards in a liquid element; in the second sentence, to fall answers to the genus; in the like manner, lead is the species, metal is the genus.

For the same reason, Milton, in describing the attitude in which Satan was discovered by Ithuriel and his company, when that malignant spirit was employed in infusing pernicious thoughts into the mind of our first mother, says—

"Him there they found

Squat like a toad, close at the ear of Eve."

No word in the language could have so happily expressed the posture, as that which the poet has here chosen.

"Consider," says our Lord, "the lilies how they grow: they toil not, they spin not; and yet I say unto you, that Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. If then God so clothe the grass, which is to-day in the field, and to-morrow is cast into the oven; how much more will he clothe you?" "Let us here adopt," says Dr. Campbell, "a little of the tasteless manner of modern paraphrasts, by the substitution of more general terms, one of their many expedients of infrigidating, and let us observe the effect produced by this change. Consider the flowers, how they gradually increase in their size: they do no manner of work, and yet I declare to you, that no king whatever, in his most splendid habit, is dressed up like them. If, then, God, in his providence, doth so adorn the vegetable productions, which continue but a little time on the land, and are afterwards put into the fire, how much more will he provide clothing for you?"" How spiritless is the same sentiment rendered by these small variations! The very particularizing of to-day and to-morrow, is infinitely more expressive of transitoriness, than any description given in general terms, that can be substituted in its room.

c. Sometimes, also, the imagery will be enlivened, not only by particularizing, but by individuating the object presented to the mind; thus, the Royal Psalmist says, "White as the snow in Salmon."

It is not, however, to be understood, that this method of individuating the object ought always to be preferred by the poet or the orator. It must be used with caution, particularly, if we wish our writings to be more extensively known than in our immediate neighbourhood.

d. On the same principle, whatever tends to subject the thing spoken of to the notice of our senses, especially of our eyes, renders the expression more animated.

Thus, St. Paul, in addressing the Ephesians, says, "I have coveted no man's silver, or gold, or apparel. Yea, ye yourselves know, that these hands have ministered unto my necessities, and to them that were with me." Had he said, "my hands," the sentence would have lost nothing either in meaning or in perspicuity, but very much in vivacity.

e. To the preceding remarks we may add, that, in composition, particularly of the descriptive kind, if we wish to present to the mind a vivid image, we must advance from general expressions to special; and thence, to more particular.

Thus, were a preacher, in a discourse on Vice and Irreligion, to furnish only some general remarks on these subjects in the abstract, without particularizing any one

vice, the impression, if any, made on the minds of his hearers, must necessarily be extremely faint. But if, on the contrary, he were to dwell on some one vice, and particularize its nature and consequences, the ideas thus conveyed to the mind, would be far more vivid and impressive.

"The only appropriate occasion for general language is,” as Dr. Whately justly observes, "when we wish to avoid giving a vivid impression,-when our object is to soften what is offensive, disgusting, or shocking; as when we speak of an execution, for the infliction of the sentence of death on a criminal: of which kind of expressions, common discourse furnishes numberless instances. On the other hand, in Antony's speech over Cæsar's body, his object being to excite horror, Shakspeare puts into his mouth the most particular expressions in the following words:-'those honourable men (not, who killed Cæsar, but) whose daggers have stabbed Cæsar.'

2. Another mode of enlivening the style is,

First, When an individual is employed to represent a species; or a species, a genus; or a part, or the most interesting circumstance, to represent the whole; as, when we say, "A Solomon," for a wise man; "A sail," for a ship; "The Lord is my song, says Moses; "he is become my salvation," that is, "the subject of my song, the author of my salvation."

In a similar manner, the passion is employed to represent its object, the operation its subject, the instrument the agent, and the gift the giver.

Secondly, When things sensible are put for things intellectual; thus, we say, "The mitre," for the priesthood; "The crown," for royalty; "The sword," for the military profession.

Thirdly, When things animate are used to represent things that are inanimate; thus, we sometimes style a literary performance, "the offspring of the brain." Ceres is used to denote bread; Bacchus, to denote wine.

The following modes of expression are calculated to obstruct vivacity; When the genus is put for the species, the whole for a part, the matter for the instrument or thing made, and the intellectual for the sensible. These modes of expression arise,First, from a disposition to vary the expression, and prevent the too frequent recurrence of the same sound upon the ear. Hence, the genus is sometimes put for the species. Secondly, from an inclination to suggest contempt without rudeness, that is, not openly to express, but indirectly to insinuate it. Thus, when a particular man is called a creature or an animal, there is a sort of tacit refusal of the specific attributes of human nature. But the phrases, no creature, and every creature, like all the world, are a kind of hyperbolic idioms which do not belong to this class. Thirdly, from a desire of palliating the representation, and that either from humanity, from courtesy, or from decency. All these modes of expression have been denominated Euphemism, signifying a softened expression.

2. The Number of Words.

3. a. With respect to Energy or Vivacity, as depending on the Number of Words, it may be established as a maxim, that the fewer the words are, provided perspicuity is not violated, the more vivid is the expression.

"As when the rays of the sun," observes Campbell, "are collected into the focus of a burning glass, the smaller the spot is which receives them, compared with the surface of the glass, the greater are the heat and splendour; so, in exhibiting our sentiments by speech, the narrower the compass of words is, in which the thought is comprised, the more energetic is the expression."

b. Conciseness of expressson is not, however, equally adapted to every subject. It is most appropriate to the preceptive, aphoristic, and proverbial styles.

EXAMPLE." Nor love thy life, nor hate; but what thou liv'st,

Live well; how long or short, permit to Heav'n."-Milton.

The aphoristic and proverbial styles may be thus distinguished;-the aphoristic style is employed to convey the discoveries in science, the proverbial style to convey the maxims of common life.

c. On the other hand, the kinds of writing least susceptible of conciseness of expression, are the descriptive, the pathetic, and particularly the declamatory. It is, besides, much more suitable in writing than in speaking, because a reader, having the command of his time, may read fast or slowly, as is more convenient; he can peruse a sentence a second time when necessary, or lay down the book and think.

But if, in a public address, you comprise a great deal in few words, the hearer must have uncommon quickness of apprehension to catch your meaning, before you have put it out of his power, by engaging his attention to something else. In orations, therefore, it is particularly unsuitable; and, consequently, in all kinds of writing that are addressed to the people, it is more or less so, as they partake more or less of popular declamation.

4. Though energetic brevity is not adapted alike to every subject, we ought always to avoid its contrary, Verbosity, that is, a languid redundancy of words.

The principal faults against Energy of Expression are, Tautology, Pleonasm, and Verbosity. Tautology and Pleonasm have been already discussed under Precision; the following remarks, therefore, will be confined to Verbosity.

The repetition of the same sense in different words is called Tautology; the use of superfluous words is called Pleonasm; the use of unnecessary or unimportant clauses or circumstances is denominated Verbosity. In the Pleonasm, there are words which add nothing to the sense; in the verbose manner, not only single words but whole clauses, may have a meaning, and yet, it would be better to omit them, because what they mean is unimportant.

In a proper Pleonasm, a complete correction is always made by erasing the words; but, in the verbose style, it is often necessary, not only to expunge words, but to recast the whole sentence.

a. In the first place, avoid inserting any clause which, on a superficial view only, may appear to suggest something that heightens, but which, on reflection, is found to diminish the vigour of the sentiment.

EXAMPLE. "Neither is any condition of life more honourable in the sight of God than another, otherwise, he would be a respecter of persons, which he assures us he is not." It is evident, that this last clause enervates the thought, as it implies, that without this assurance from God himself, we should naturally conclude him to be of a character different from that which has been here given him by the speaker.

b. For a similar reason, avoid the juvenile method of loading every proposition with asseverations.

As such a practice in conversation more commonly infuses a suspicion of the speaker's veracity, than it engages the belief of the hearer, it has a similar effect in writing. In our translation of the Bible, for instance, the translators improperly represent the Almighty as declaring to Adam, "In the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die." The adverb surely, instead of enforcing, as the translators intended, only enfeebles the denunciation, as a ground of mistrust is insinuated, to which no affirmation is a counterpoise. Such adverbs must never be used, either when the character of the speaker or the evidence for a thing, is such as precludes the smallest doubt. Thus, were we to read in an act of parliament, "that the offender shall, for the first offence, certainly be liable to such a penalty, and for the second, he shall surely incur such another," we should instantly feel that such a mode of expression would imply, that the authority of parliament could be called in question. Again, an Israelite informing David concerning Goliah, is represented, in our version, as saying, "Surely to defy Israel is he come up." Had the giant shown himself between the camps, and used menacing gestures, or spoken words which no one understood, this expression would have been natural and proper. But no man could have talked in this manner who had himself been a witness, that every day, for forty days successively, this champion had given an open defiance to Israel in the most explicit terms, and in the audience of all the army. The same observations are applicable to the phrases, "in no case," "in no wise;" for, instead of strengthening the negation in authoritative threatenings, they only weaken it. The words, "Ye shall not enter the kingdom of heaven," as they have more simplicity, have, also, from the mouth of a legislator, more dignity and weight, than ye shall, “in no wise," or "in no case,' enter into it, as though there were various ways and means of getting there. It is proper to observe, in this place, that when our excellent translation of the Bible was made, the true import of the English tenses appears not to have been properly

defined.

The preceding remarks are not applicable, however, to such a phrase as " Verily, verily, I say unto you," a mode of expression so frequently adopted by our Lord. As these words enter not into the body of the proposition, but are employed solely to introduce it, they are to be considered as a call to attention, serving not so much to affirm the reality, as the importance of what is to be said.

5. Secondly, Be careful in the use of Epithets. When Epithets are sparingly and judiciously employed, they are conducive to Energy of Expression; but, otherwise, they only betray an effort to cover poverty of sentiment by mock sublimity of language.

By the term Epithet is here meant, not every adjective annexed to a noun, but such words as add nothing to the sense, but signify something already implied in the noun itself. Thus, when I say, "the glorious sun," the word glorious is an epithet, because it expresses a quality which is implied in the noun itself. But, when I say, the meridian sun," the word meridian is not an epithet, as it denotes the sun in that situation in which it appears at noon.

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