1. In an essay, the thoughts must possess novelty and importance. Hence, the difficulty of ably conducting periodical publications. To do this successfully, requires a mind well furnished with rich and varied stores of knowledge.

2. The flow of thought in an essay, must be discursive and animated. By this, it is not meant, that the writer himself has been devoid of plan, but that his production does not betray his art. Much skill is also requisite in the frequent transition from one subject to another. By dwelling too long on one part, the production becomes tedious; whilst, by passing too rapidly from one to another, it appears sterile and abrupt.

In an essay, also, we expect the wit and sprightliness of an active, playful mind, rather than the deep-laid and well-matured reflections of the philosopher.

3. The style of the essay may either be easy and idiomatic, or more laboured and neat. So far, also, as is consistent with the calm and simple manner of the essay, the allusions should be frequent and happy, the illustrations pertinent, and the figurative expressions pleasing.

The principal essays in our language, are, the Spectator, Tatler, Rambler, Idler, Knox's Essays, and Foster's Essays.

8. Philosophical Compositions.

The professed object of philosophical composition, is to convey instruction in the arts and sciences, and to detail the various phenomena of the natural and the moral world.

This kind of writing requires great perspicuity and accuracy of diction, and clearness of arrangement. The illustrations must be apposite; the figures of speech, chaste; and the style, neat and pleasing.

9. Argumentative Discussions.

An Argumentative Discussion is the examination of a subject, with the design of establishing some position that has been taken, or, of maintaining some opinion that has been advanced. It requires power of research and investigation, joined with comprehensiveness and strength of intellect.

The most important directions to be observed, in this kind of writing, are:1. That the subject of discussion be fully stated and explained.

2. That strict method be observed in the arrangement of the several parts of the discourse, and that the object of the writer be kept constantly in view.

The style should be manly and dignified; forcible, rather than elegant. Expressions which, from the figurative use of language, are bold and striking, may be happily introduced; and the production should abound in illustrations and interesting facts.

In this part, I shall explain and illustrate, for the advantage of the young student, the nature and divisions of Themes.'

THEMES.

The word Theme properly signifies the subject of any discourse, but, it is more commonly used to designate the discourse itself.

Themes are generally divided into two classes, Simple and Complex.

CLASS I.-SIMPLE THEMES.

Simple Themes, frequently termed Didactic Subjects, comprehend such as may be expressed by one term, or more than one, without

conveying either an affirmation or negation; as, 'Logic;' 'Education;' The Fall of the Roman Empire;' The Institution of Chivalry.'

All subjects which have for their object the communication of instruction, either in the arts, philosophy, or morals, may be comprehended under this class.

A Simple Theme is commonly divided into-1. The Definition; 2. the Cause; 3. the Antiquity or Novelty; 4. the Universality or Locality; 5. the Effects, namely, the Advantages or Disadvantages; 6. the Conclusion.

1. In the Definition, we explain the nature or meaning of the subject. 2. In the Cause, we show the origin of the subject, that is, from what it proceeds.

3. Under Antiquity or Novelty, we show what it was in ancient, and what it is in modern times.

4. Under Universality or Locality, we show whether the subject relates to the whole world, or only to a particular part of it.

5. Under the Effects, we show whether the influence of the subject has been injurious or beneficial.

6. In the Conclusion, we make such observations as may be suggested by a careful examination of the whole subject.

AN EXAMPLE OF A SIMPLE THEME.

On Education.

Definition. Education may be properly defined to be "the culture of the human mind."

Cause. As every parent knows how much the happiness of his child depends upon its proper education, it is no wonder, that he bestows so much care and attention upon this important subject.

Antiquity. The Greeks and Romans, among whom were produced such prodigies of excellence in every kind of writing, and in every department of civil and military life, were remarkably attentive to the education of their children; so much so, that they began their education almost with their birth.

Novelty. Various are the modes of education which have been adopted among the moderns; but most, if not all of them, seem to be greatly inferior to the strict discipline and methodical instruction of the ancients.

Universality. All nations pay attention to this essential duty of parents; even the savage takes care to instruct his child in hunting, fishing, and those branches of knowledge which are necessary for him.

Locality. But in no part of the world has education been brought to such perfection as in civilized countries; here its importance is properly estimated; and in no part of science has the human mind been more exerted that in the improvement of education. Men of the greatest attainments have not thought it unworthy of their attention.

Advantages. Nothing can show the advantages of a good education in a stronger light, than a contrast with the disadvantages of a bad one. A person of good education has his mind and body so cultivated and improved, that his natural defects are removed, and the beauties of both placed in so fine a light, that they strike with double force. But he who has had the misfortune of a bad education, has all his natural imperfections remaining, with the addition of artificial ones, arising from bad habits, or from pursuing improper studies. The former engages the attention of those with whom he converses, by the good sense he shows on every subject, and the agreeable manner in which he conveys it. The other disgusts every company into which he enters, either by

nis total silence and stupidity, or by the ignorance and impertinence of his observations. The one raises himself to the notice of his superiors, and advances himself to a higher rank in life: the other is obliged to act an infe rior part among his equals in fortune, and is sometimes forced to conceal his ignorance by associating with the lowest orders of mankind. WALKER.

Directions for Writing Simple Themes.

1. The first thing which a pupil must do before he commences writing is, to fix exactly the meaning of the term which is the subject of the theme, and remove every thing that is doubtful or equivocal in its signification. In all cases of difficulty, the true import of the word must be determined by its etymology, or by the practice of the best writers.

2. He must next explain the necessary and accidental qualities of the subject, and enumerate them according to the order and importance which they have with reference to the end in view.

3. These things having been properly considered, will generally suggest the other parts of the theme.

To illustrate these remarks, we will suppose the subject chosen to be "Emulation."

He

Perhaps, the young pupil's first recourse, when a subject is proposed to him is, to consult some author that has written upon the subject. But this plan is never to be recommended; on the contrary, let him turn to another source-to his own mind. Let him work upon the materials which are in his own possession. Let him, for instance, put the question to himself, "What is emulation?" Here, let him recollect the early scenes in which this feeling was first excited. may remember the expressions which he used when young, "I can do this and you cannot ;" "I shall be at that mark before you." When, also, he considers that he is now, perhaps, contending for the first place in his class, or for the half-yearly prize, he will, from the recollection or consideration of these things, be enabled to answer the question, "What is emulation?" A desire and endeavour to excel others -to be the first in any competition.

It is,

Secondly. Whence proceeds, or what excites this desire and endeavour? From obtaining an object first, which other competitors wish to possess. It is not the intrinsic value of the object itself, for this may be only a sprig of laurel, a medal of small value, a book, &c. therefore, the circumstance of obtaining this object, before other competitors. And what is it that gives such value of being the first in the competition? It is the presence of many spectators and admirers, whose reflected praise animates the competitors, and makes the breast of the student palpitate when he receives the prize.

When this

Thirdly. Again, what are the effects of emulation? principle operates with full effect, and under the control of virtue and honour, it produces vigorous conflict, persevering exertion, eager expectation, and, in the moments of success, exquisite delight. The student may form a clearer view of this generous and energetic feeling, by turning his attention to the histories of great characters and great events. He will thus be enabled to discriminate between emu

lation and its collaterals, ambition and fame. These latter fix upon the possession of their objects without any view of competition, or of the means by which they may be obtained; whereas, the pleasures of emulation spring from the love of excellence and of superiority.

This outline will show the pupil that he has only to embrace the subject of the theme closely, to apply to his own mind for light and knowledge, to press himself with interrogatories relative to his demands, to follow the natural association of things, and he will soon find sufficient materials, and arrive at such information as he could not otherwise have conceived to be within his reach. The concluding step is to select from these materials, and to arrange them according to the particular end which he has in view. If this part of his work be rightly performed, he will not find much difficulty in suitably expressing what he clearly and distinctly knows.

PREPARATORY RULES.—RULE 1.—In explaining a thing, avoid using the same word as that which stands for the thing to be explained.

RULE 2.-Avoid making a distinction where there is no difference. The following example is a deviation from this Rule; "Books are the receptacles of knowledge, and the depositories in which the collected wisdom of ages is treasured up." As the latter part of the sentence merely explains the former, the conjunction and, signifying addition, should be omitted.

RULE 3.-In your arguments, carefully avoid using words and phrases which have no recommendation except their plausible sound and connection, while they convey no clear thoughts upon the subject. This error is frequently called Verbiage.

RULE 4.—In every composition, the sentences belonging to the same paragraph should appear, as it were, to grow out of one another, forming a necessary part of the same train of reasoning; the paragraphs themselves, also, must have a more intimate relation than that of merely treating of the same subject.-See the Exercises-Course 4th, Class 2.

CLASS 2.-COMPLEX THEMES.

Complex Themes express a judgment which admits of proof or illustration; as, "Grammar is a necessary study;" "Youth is the season of improvement."

In subjects of this kind, the conclusion to be established is supposed to be present to the mind of the writer, and his business is to find proofs of the given proposition.

Complex Themes are generally divided into

1. The Proposition, in which we explain the subject of the theme, or define the extent of the affirmation or negation.

2. The Reason, containing the arguments which we furnish to prove the truth of the theme.

3. The Confirmation, in which we endeavour to show the unreasonableness of the contrary opinion; or, if we cannot do this, we should give additional arguments tending to confirm our opinions.

4. The Simile or Comparison is something in nature or art similar to what is affirmed in our theme, and introduced for the purpose of illustrating its truth.

5. The Example is an instance drawn from history or experience, to corroborate what has been already advanced.

6. The Testimony or Quotation consists of some proverbial sentences, or passages from good authors, showing that others entertain the same opinion of the subject as we do.

7. The Conclusion is that in which we sum up the whole, and show the practical use of the theme, by concluding with some appropriate observation.

AN EXAMPLE OF A COMPLEX THEME.

The Importance of checking the first Approaches of Vice.

Prop. Nothing is more important in the moral conduct of life, than to watch the beginnings of evil and to check them as soon as possible.

Reason. Evil propensities are easily conquered at first, and require only a small share of resolution to resist them; but, if we suffer them to become habitual, by flattering ourselves that we can resist them when we please, we shall, in all probability, fall a sacrifice to them.

Conf. For, as it is the nature of evil habits to gather strength, and grow stronger every day, so, the power of resisting them becomes proportionably weaker, till at last we are completely enslaved by them.

Simile. Nothing is more inculcated by judicious physicians, than the necessity of attending to diseases in their infancy, so, nothing is more pressed upon us by moralists, than the necessity of attending to the beginnings of vice, which may be justly styled the diseases of the mind.

Exam. The danger of not correcting the beginnings of evil is finely exemplified in the character of Macbeth, who, though a man of great virtue and honour, was, by attending to fortune-tellers, and yielding to the ambitious counsels of his wife, transformed, by degrees, into a murderer of his king, and a tyrant to his subjects.

Test. One of the most common observations of the ancient moralists was, that no man became bad all at once, and that the greatest offences against virtue have arisen from the smallest beginnings of vice.

Concl. How justly, therefore, may we conclude, that we cannot be too much on our guard against the first temptations to evil; as every vicious inclination contains on egg, which, by being cherished, will be hatched into a serpent.

Directions for Writing Complex Themes.

The Proposition.

1. The meaning of the subject and predicate must be accurately fixed, the extent of the affirmation or negation exactly ascertained, and the proposition stated in the most intelligible manner.

By strictly observing this Rule, and by bringing the mind steadily to view the point at which we are aiming, we shall neither enter on too wide a field of discussion for the length of our discourse, nor introduce into the proposition more things than the arguments are intended to prove. When we have properly explained the nature and stated the extent of our theme, we should select for discussion those things which are of the greatest importance, and, instead of furnishing