(6.) The Supreme Council is so organized by this act as to consist both of members appointed by the government, and of others elected by the faculties of the University of Turin. It must be considered that such a council from its very nature could not properly be the result of the popular vote, which would place it under the influence and movements of political parties. Neither education nor science can be properly directed by a Board, which floats on the uncertain and stormy waves of politics. The results in some of the United States amply confirm the necessity of applying to some other source than popular election for the constitution of Boards of Education. This necessity appears more evident, if, to this Board, not only popular education but the direction of all the branches of scientific teaching should be intrusted. We believe, however, that the system adopted by the Sardinian Parliament could be improved by extending the privilege of election granted to the faculties of Turin to all the teachers of the State. No better source could be assigned to the Supreme Council, than to place its constitution in the hands of the teachers at large, so as to divide them into three different electoral colleges, according to the three dif ferent departments of instruction. Should "free teaching" become a right of the country, the teachers belonging to this class of instruction should also have right to elect their own representatives in the Supreme Council. In this system the action of the Government should confine itself to choose the members of the Board from the lists so proposed by the electors. It would seem that this system better than any other else would secure to the Council the elements of stability and progress, together with the ability and the independence of the members from the executive and political influence, without which an efficient direction of public education can not be conceived.

(7.) By this clause the legislation of 1848 is changed, according to which Directors and Professors of secondary and normal schools, after three years of public service could not be removed from their chairs, without a previous formal judgment of the Supreme Council. It appears that henceforth these functionaries will be at the mercy of the executive, the minister not being bound to follow the opinion of the Council in respect to their offenses and neglects. It is just, however, to add that the dangers which could result from this arbitrary power granted to the minister of public instruction would be checked by the weight of public opinion, which in fact has the supreme sway in a free country. Yet, we confess that the present provision will not prove the most apt to bestow dignity, or improve, in any way, the condition either of these teachers or of the secondary and normal schools.

(8.) The normal schools are also called Teachers' Schools, (Scuole Magistrali,) and they correspond, in some respects, to the Teachers' Institutes of America. They were established with the special object of improving the teachers of elementary schools, who had previously obtained the certificate of qualification. Afterward, it was ordered that no candidate should receive this certificate, who had not frequented the normal schools, and passed a successful examination on the matters of their course. For the organization of these schools see Vol. III., p. 517. Though the Teachers' Schools of Sardinia have not as yet reached that degree of perfection which might be desired, yet, even in their imperfect state, they must be considered of great value for the progress of the popular education of the country. Public opinion is greatly in favor of promoting the extension of these schools, and of rendering them more and more efficient by raising them to the highest possible standard.

XIIL CATECHISM ON METHODS OF TEACHING.

TRANSLATED FROM DIESTERWEG'S "ALMANAC," (Jahrbuch,) FOR 1855 AND 1856.

BY DR. HERMANN WIMMER.

(Continued from page 268, No. 10.)

VIII. GEOGRAPHY. BY ABBENRODE.

1. What are the principles on which the present methods of teaching geography are based?

They are intimately connected with the general principles of education. Some consider it necessary to proceed from a general view of the globe, in order to gain at first a general outline,—a scaffold, by means of which the building may be gradually constructed in all its details,-and this in such a way that the pupil shall remain always conscious of the relation of the several parts to the whole, and that the latter itself shall gradually be made more and more perspicuous in all respects.

Others think that the beginner should first be led into a sphere commensurate with his faculties, near to him and capable of being surveyed by his bodily eye; and that he ought to be made familiar with it, in order to sharpen his sight and tongue for the later geographical perceptions, and the intellect for the relations more and more complicated. Then, and not before, the boundaries of this field should be gradually extended, to give his growing powers more extended exercise, until, at last, in the highest grade of his studies, the whole earth is considered in all its various relations.

Others again are of opinion, that the mere observing, hearing and speaking of geographical matter, does not give thorough knowledge; that it is requisite to appeal to the spontaneous activity of the pupils themselves, and to cause them gradually to complete drawn or pictured representations of the localities studied. This method they say is not only in harmony with the juvenile inclination to such work, but gives an indelible knowledge of what is pictured, particularly of its relations of form and surface; which will serve as a solid basis for all further instruction.

On these three foundations rest the ideas of the geographical methods now in use, the analytical, synthetical and constructive, (drawing,) method, each of which, in practice, admits of various modifications.

2. What are the peculiar advantages and disadvantages of the analytical method?

One advantage that should not be undervalued is, that it designedly keeps in view the connection of the several parts of the earth to the whole, so that, from the beginning, all discontinuance of the perceptions is avoided. It most carefully regards especially the topical and physical elements, as well as the necessity of graphic representation. It, however, has this peculiar disadvantage, that it

forces upon the pupil the perception of the whole, at a time when he is not yet able to comprehend it fully; and, in particular, not to understand the general relations of climate, soil, produce, etc. It is impossible to carry the beginner along at once in all the collateral studies, e. g., in natural knowledge, so as to thoroughly acquaint him with all these elements. Many things consequently remain an undigested mass, gathered and retained merely in the hope of future understanding.

3. By whom has the analytical method been particularly recommended?

The "philanthropist," Guts-Muths, has, in his "Essay on methodical instruction in geography," (Versuch einer Methodik des geographisches Unterrichts, 1845,) exclusively advocated the analytical method, which is also used almost exclu sively in scientific works. (See Berghaus, Roon, Kalkstein, Rode, Barth, Viehoff, etc.) Some have attempted to lessen the inconvenience of analysis, by dividing the material into appropriate courses.

4. In what respect has the synthetical method of teaching geography unquestionable value.

In that, according to correct principles of pedagogy, a small and easily comprehensible space is treated at the outset; that the most "concrete" things, easily understood by the children, form the ground-work of further instruction: that these small districts or parts are by this method made vividly distinct wholes, the gradual extension of which, and its increasing variety, are well accommodated to the gradual development of the pupil's mind. The subjects and relations thus learned are at the same time the elements of all geographical instruction. Moreover, by this method the pupil gains, within a reasonable time, and in an orderly way, a desirable familiarity with his native place and country; and in case the extent of his studies has to be curtailed, the more remote parts of the globe would be omitted, rather than those with which the scholar and his life are closely connected, and which, therefore, must be most important to him. This method, likewise, admits of laying out definite courses. However, the strict and complete carrying out of it, would lead to an improper extension of the field to be gone through, and might, by tiresome repetition, cause other disadvantages.

5. Who advocate the synthetical method?

Charles Ritter, (see Guts-Muths, Bibliothek ;) Henning, "Guide to methodical instruction in geography;" (Leitfaden zu einem methodischen unterricht in der geographie, 1812;) Harnisch, "Geography," (Weltkunde;) Diesterweg, "Introduction to methodical instruction in geography," (Anleitung zu einem methodischen unterricht in der geographie;) and Ziemann, "Geographical instruction in the burger schools, (Geographische unterricht in Bürgerschulen, 1833.) 6. What is to be thought of a combination of these two methods? Strict consistency in either of them leads inevitably to many inconveniences. Therefore, we must either follow one in the main and make all kinds of exceptional uses of the other, or contrive to combine them judiciously. It is a great concession made to the synthetical method by the analytical, that the latter should permit, as introductory to the proper geographical course, a preliminary one, to include observation of the neighborhood and its objects; drawing easy sketches of the school-room, house, garden, etc.; instruction in measures of length and breadth, (if possible in the open air ;) experiments in sketching the neighborhood from an elevated point, with estimates of area by eye, on a small scale, (for children of 7-8 years;) and geographical instruction on the native

country, (province or state,) with an occasional exposition of the elementary geographical conceptions. Bormann, who tries to combine the best parts of the two methods, makes the first described preliminary course, (somewhat modified, and with the addition of observations of the most simple phenomena of the sky,) his first course; giving in the second a view of the globe, with instruction upon its principal imaginary lines, and the drawing of them, with a general view of Europe, and a particular one of Germany; advancing in the third course, to a more accurate description of Germany, followed by a view of the other European and extra-European countries. Such a combination may be considered as appropriate and practical; still it is not the only one possible.

7. What are the advantages of the constructive, (drawing,) method?

The drawing method proposes, by construction of maps, instruction in the elements of such construction, before all regular teaching, to furnish the basis and means of all geographical knowledge. It places especial value on the creative activity of the pupils; and upon such an impression of the pictures drawn, that this may be indelible and vivid in the pupil's mind, and form the foundation on which future geographical teaching shall rest. The accuracy and strictness which this method gives in fixing and enlarging the forms is unquestionably very valuable, for very much depends on a thorough acquaintance with these forms. A designedly and gradual advance from the most general groundforms to the more correct contours, and filling them out afterward with details of surface, is quite correspondent with pedagogical principles. This method, however, requires far too much in the way of accurate memory of numerous localities laid down. Geography contains still many other things of essential value, for which there would scarcely remain sufficient time and interest.

8. How is this constructive method usually carried out in detail?

Agren, general text-book, Part 1, Physical Geography, (Allgemeines Lehrbuch: physische Erdbeschreibung,) Berlin, 1832, would first have the maps of the two hemispheres drawn, on a planispherical projection. Some characteristic points, (capes, mouths of rivers, etc.,) are then to be fixed and joined by straight lines, to gain a sort of ground-plan of the area. The formation of the coast comes next, and afterward the parts of the surface are put in,—all by fixed and defined rules. This method, therefore, distinguishes between description of the coast and of the surface.

Карр, "Course of Geographical Drawing," (Lehrgang der Zeichnenden Erdkunde,) Minden, 1837, takes the square form as a basis, and likewise assumes some characteristic points in the same, which he joins at first by straight lines, until successive corrections give the right representation.

Klöden rejects the gradual elaboration of the right map. According to him it must be drawn accurately from the very beginning by aid of some determining lines.

Canstein takes neither the whole geographical net of lines nor the form of a square; but any convenient geometrical figures, as triangles, rectangles, circles, etc., and uses but few meridians and parallel circles. He admits no copying, nor does he aim at strict accuracy in all determinations of boundaries and directions.

Lohse keeps to the normal directions of the rivers; has copies made from a given model-drawing, and requires a memory of what has been drawn.

Oppermann, "Guide to Geographical Instruction," (Leitfaden zum geographis chen unterricht,) gives the pupils the right maps, ready made, in accurate contours, has these contours painted over in the succession in which the countries occur in the lessons, and then the details of the surface put in.

Klöden's method, (see above,) seems to be the best. On the plan of Bormann and Vogel, the pupils have skeleton maps, with the chief positions already marked, (see the maps of Vogel, Freihold, Holle, etc.,) and gradually draw the correct maps.

9. To what limitations is the constructive method subject in the common schools? The drawing of maps, (by which must not be understood mechanical copying,) can not of course begin until the scholars have skill in drawing generally sufficient to construct a relatively correct map with some success. But geographical instruction itself can not be put off until that time; therefore, drawing maps can not be placed at the beginning, but must take its place in a higher grade. Again, unless geography is to occupy all the study and leisure time of the pupils with making neat maps, not entire atlases, but only a few maps, can be drawn, (that of the native province and country, of one or another country of Europe, of Palestine, etc.; but scarcely, with advantage, the two planispheres.) At school, there is not time to draw every thing, and if there were, it would be better used in other things, since map-drawing, an excellent aid to geographical instruction, is not that instruction itself.

10. What is the proper introduction to teaching geography ?

It must be preceded by an acquaintance with the relations of space in the immediate neighborhood, and with the geographical objects there, as well as by an elementary knowledge of maps, and thus of elementary conceptions, for the sake of conversing on the same; else the pupil can not understand clearly nor advance successfully.

11. What is the value of a preliminary course, (Vorcursus,) intended exclusively for explaining the fundamental conceptions?

Those conceptions are indispensable; but to bring them all together in an especial course and to premise them to further instruction, is a pedagogical mistake, more inexcusable, in proportion as the course is more extended and abstract. In the same measure as instruction proceeds, the detail and quantity of accurate geographical notions may increase. But the beginning is sufficiently taken up by the first and most general of them, which are to be immediately applied. Excessive and premature expansion is injurious instead of useful. Much more is to be gained by actual observation of the elements of the neighboring landscape, with a view of frequent application afterward.

12. What are the practical details requisite in geography?

There is much to be observed, compared, understood, deduced, combined, impressed, represented. These, therefore, must be cared for, in teaching. The means of observation ought to be used in manifold ways, in order to gain the most correct image of the nature and life of the countries, and to illustrate and fix the same by all sorts of proper comparisons of the portions treated.

The teacher's statements should be clear, careful, stimulating, graphic, and definite; ought to leave the map only exceptionally; and should be adapted to fix the image in the pupil's mind. He must show how to draw conclusions from given natural conditions, to infer elements from given relations, to transfer the relations of the neighborhood to distant countries, and to combine partial