"They be farre more in number, that love to read of great Armies, bloudy Battels, and many thousands slaine at once, than that minde the Art, by which the Affaires, both of Armies, and Cities, be conducted to their ends."-HOBBES, Preface to Thucydides. itly the memory of ARISTOTLE. For as Greece is to us the mother of al Introductory-Place of the Theory most everything that makes life. of Politics in Human Knowl-worthy to be lived, so is ARISTOTLE edge. especially the father of science and scientific method; and during the centuries when the lessons of Greece were forgotten the name and work of ARISTOTLE (used indeed in a manner and for purposes he would have marveled at) were almost the only links that still bound the modern to the Hellenic world. With regard to our present subject ARISTOTLE's claim is evident and eminent. He has been recognized as the founder of political science by the general voice of posterity. There was political speculation before him, but it was he who first brought to bear on political phenomena the patient analysis and unbiased research which are the proper marks and virtues of scientific inquiry. The science of politics, like so much else of our knowledge and endeavors to know, begins with ARISTOTLE. In No good Brahman begins any literary work without a formula of salutation to Ganesa, the elephant-headed patron-god of learning. In the West we are not so punctilious about forms; yet we might with some fitness open our undertakings in philosophy and science by saluting expressly or tac * This History, like the late Mr. BAGEHOT'S well-known works "The English Constitution" and "Physics and Politics appeared serially in the "Fortnightly Review" It was published at intervals between Aug ust, 1882, and January of the present year (1883) this as in other things his organizing altogether idle. Men, being moral genius consolidated the scattered ma- beings, are led to reflect on the nature terial of his predecessors, and left a of right and wrong, and the functions compact structure. From ARISTOTLE of conscience; being citizens, they onward we shall now try to follow the are equally led to reflect on the nature fortunes and growth of this science. of the State, the functions of govern It is not a tale of continuous and ment, and the origin and authority of rapid advance like the history of the civil obligation. This latter inquiry exact sciences, or even of those natural is indeed more practical than the other; sciences in which mathematical pre- for political theories of the most gencision is not attainable. On the con- eral kind often have considerable trary, we shall find much wild specu- direct influence in public affairs, lation, and many grave mistakes. which cannot, I think, be said of But we shall also find a good deal of ethical theories. The declaration of real advance, if we attend to what has the Rights of Man by the French been done by scientific inquirers rather Constituent Assembly has certainly than what has been put forward under the name of science by social and political agitators, and do not allow the failures to blind our eyes to the succes ses. not been without practical effect. This consists of general statements of what men, as men, are entitled to and may justly demand. If true, the statements are of the utmost importBefore we enter on the history it ance to politicians and legislators; if may be as well to take a rough gen- false, they are highly mischievous. eral view of the place of the theory of In either case they purport to be propolitics in human knowledge. Many positions of political science. M. persons would perhaps deny that BARTHELEMY ST.-HILAIRE informed there is any science of politics at all. the world in 1848 that they were the If they meant that there is no body crown and sum of all the political sciof rules from which a Prime Minister ence of all former ages. Claiming such may infallibly learn how to command authority, and having in fact influenced a majority, they would be right as to men's minds, the principles thus the fact, but would betray a rather enounced cannot be merely disreinadequate notion of what science is. garded; and it is scientific criticism There is a science of politics in the that must establish or refute them. same sense, and to the same, or about To the persons who deny the necessity the same, extent, as there is a science or possibility of philosophy it is a of morals Whatever systematic mor- sufficient answer that at all events alists may have professed to think, critical philosophy is needful for the it is at least doubtful whether systems exposure of philosophies falsely so of moral philosophy have been of much called; and in the same way politdirect use in helping people to decide ical science must and does exist, actual questions of conduct. For my if it were only for the refutation own part, I would in a case of con- of absurd political theories and proscience rather consult a right minded jects. and sensible friend than any moral philosopher in the world. I should think neither the better nor the worse of his advice if he happened also to be a student of philosophy. Nevertheless few educated persons will refuse to admit that inquiry into the nature and origin of moral rules is legitimate and useful, or will maintain that the endeavor to refer them, historically or rationally, to general principles is To show how I conceive politics to fit into the general scheme of our knowledge, I adopt the old-fashioned division of the sciences into natural and moral. By this I do not mean to commit myself to any general doctrine. I do not see why there should be any one classification which is absolutely right in itself, or why we should not use different classifications for different purposes. From some points ACTION. (as individual). Psychology. (as member of society). Economy. Political Economy. SCIENCE OR PHILOSOPHY (in widest sense). NATURAL PHILOSOPHY SCIENCE (in special sense). Physical Sciences ed as animal or part of nature). MORAL SCIENCES or MORAL PHILOSOPHY (in general sense). KNOWLEDGE. Psychology. Man as intelligent agent. Logic. particular Metaphysics Ethics Theory of Knowledge. Theory of Conduct. (as member of (or analytical Psychology, PHILOSOPHY in special sense unique science"). as of view it may be proper to neglect are language and books. Hence there are wide differences in the manner of the student's work, the nature of the results, and the power of verifying them; and these are worth marking, if only to perceive that the comparative inexactness of the moral sciences is not the fault of the men who have devoted their abilities to them, but depends, as ARISTOTLE already saw, on the nature of their subject-matter. The subdivisions of natural science do not now concern us." The moral sciences may be divided into speculative and practical branches. In the former, we consider man as knowing and thinking; in the latter, as feeling and acting. It is questionable, again, if this division will hold in final analysis. My own opinion is that it will not, or that knowledge and action are not really separable; but it corresponds to a difference sufficiently obvious in the common course of life. For the speculative branch, or the laws of thought, we have logic (whatentirely the distinction I now mean to ever its exact place among or beside use, as is done, for example, by Mr. the speculative sciences ought to be) HERBERT SPENCER is his essay on the and metaphysics, which leads us to the classification of the sciences. In ulti- all-devouring question of questionsmate analysis the distinction may be what knowledge is, and how is it made to vanish. At present I do not possible at all. Thus from the theory want to carry matters to ultimate of knowledge on the speculative side, analysis, but to regard the study of as also from ethics, on the practical politics as belonging to a kind of in- side, we are landed (or cast adrift quiries which for ordinary practical might be thought by some the better purposes are sufficiently well marked phrase) on philosophy in the special off from others. In the natural sense, which is really apart from the sciences we have to do with the ma- sciences, both moral and natural; terial world, and man's bodily for the organized knowledge of parorganism as part thereof. In the moral sciences we have to do with *Not attempting a complete division, man as intelligent, and to study the laws of his intelligent action. The purposely leave much open: as whether the pure sciences of space and number should general aim and method are the same stand at the head of the physical sciences, or the discovery of truth by be set apart by themselves, as not dealing reasoned investigation of facts; but with any one fact of nature but fixing the the means are widely different. In ganeral conditions of exact knowledge of the external world. Again, I offer no opinion the natural sciences the work is done, about logic, save that it belongs to the specubroadly speaking, on phenomena lative as distinct from the practical side of present to the senses and with instru- the moral sciences. There is a question ments of manual use. In the moral (analogous to that of the pure sciences) science the matter is present only further and very difficult questions of its whether it is a special science at all, and in reflection, and the instruments relation to psychology and metaphysics. the ticular kinds of phenomena cannot | doubted that the great bulk of moral include the analysis of knowledge it- duties have regard to other persons. self. This I mention by the way, Without passing judgment on conjust to show that philosophy will not troverted questions, therefore we may be exorcised by any ingenious practically class ethics as a social arrangement of the sciences. She science. Lastly, we come to consider laughs at the pitchfork of AUGUSTE man not only as a member of society, COMTE, and comes back at every turn, but as a member of some particular taking her revenge in a thousand society organized in a particular way, ways on the blunders of popular and exercising supreme authority thinking. Psychology belongs in a over its members; in other words, manner to both the speculative and we consider man as a citizen, and the the practical branch, being intimately citizen in his relations to the State. connected alike with metaphysics and Thus the field is indicated for the with ethics. On the practical side science of politics: a science dealing we may regard it as the study of with matter so rich and various that man's action considered simply as an from the beginning it has been eindividual. But then we cannot be bairassed by this weight of wealth. content with studying men as indi- Its subdivisions will be more conviduals. They live together in so veniently mentioned when we arrive at cieties, and we know of no time when the period of its history in which they did not. Hence the actions of they become distinct. It is enough man in society are the subject of a to say now that the foundation and further kind of study, which is now general constitution of the State, the commonly called Sociology. The forms and administration of governword is offensive to scholars as being a barbarously formed hybrid;* and although it is too late to quarrel with anybody for using it, I should prefer Economy as a general name for the study of men's common life short of specific reference to the State. Such usage of the term corresponds pretty closely to ARISTOTLE'S. An import ant branch of this is what we all know as political economy, remarkable as the one department of the moral sciences which has assumed a semi exact character. Another branch is ethics, if with the Greeks we regard ethics as dealing essentially with A man in his relations to his fellowmen. And indeed, whatever may be thought of the existence of absolute or purely self-regarding duties, or of the possibility of a moral sense arising otherwise then in society, it is un * If such a Latin word could exist at all, it could only mean a science of partnerships or alliances. One must not push these objections too far, however. Suicide, as was once pointed out by the Cambridge opponent of a Latin thesis, "Recte statuit Paleius de suicidiis," could as a Latin word mean nothing but killing swine. ment, and the principles and method of legislation seem naturally to fall asunder as heads under which the topics of political science may be grouped, though a strictly accurate and exclusive division is hardly possible; and we must add as another head, more clearly marked off from all these, the consideration of the State as a single and complete unit of a higher order, capable of definite relations to other like units. CHAPTER II. The Classic Period: PERICLES- founder of the science; but not even more than there can be a theory of audience to approve: and, considethics unless in a society which is ering the publicity and solemnity already moral. Political speculation of the occasion, and the number of was suggested and invited by the va- persons (THUCYDIDES himself, in all riety of political constitutions existing probability, being among them) who in Greek cities, and most of all by must have preserved a vivid memory the brilliant political activity and of what they heard, I am much disresource displayed in the city of cities, posed to think that we have in where in art, in letters, and in civil THUCYDIDES a substantially correct life the power and beauty of Hellenic account of what PERICLES did say. genius came to their full height; the What the student of politics has to city which our own MILTON, an artist note is this: there runs all through in spite of his Puritanism, celebrated the speech the conception of the city, as the eye of Greece,* and a living not as a mere dwelling-place or proEnglish poet, who has studied Greek vision for material security, but as poetry and art as deeply as MILTON, and more freely, has sung of in lines not unworthy of her own tragedians: 'The fruitful immortal anointed adored Violet and olive-leaf purple and hoary. [rend, Song-wreath and story the fairest of fame, Athens, a praise without end." the sphere of man's higher activity. There is embodied in the city, in its laws, customs, and institutions, a pattern and ideal of life for the citizen. And the glory of Athens is that her ideal is better than that of others; Athens has reached the highest pitch of civilization yet attained, and is a school for all Hellas. She aims at producing a better type of man than other cities; natural abilities being equal, man's faculties are more fully and variously developed at Athens than anywhere else. And this is effected, not by a pedantic and irk some course of training (after the PERICLES was the first of Athenian fashion of the Lacedæmonian enemy,* statesmen, and one of the greatest but by the free and generous educastatesmen who have ever lived. The tion of a refined life. "We aim," speech delivered by him at the funeral said PERICLES, "at a life beautiful of the Athenians who fell in the first without extravagance, and contemcampaign of the Peloponnesian war, plative without unmanliness; wealth and related by THU YDIDES, Contains is in our eyes a thing not for osten a description and an ideal of the State tation, but for reasonable use; and it which, though sketched out in bold is not the acknowledgment of poverty and broad lines and for popular effect, we think disgraceful, but the want may help us to the knowledge of the of endeavor to avoid it,"-words soil that was ready for PLATO and ARISTOTLE to till. We cannot be sure, indeed, that PERICLES actually spoke the words attributed to him by THUCYDIDES; but we may be sure, at the very least, that they are such as THUCYDIDES thought PERICLES likely to say, and an Athenian True, it is by the mouth of Satan; but MILTON Constantly neglects the caution expressed at a later time about letting the devil have the best tunes. *The Spartans have had their day of glorification from rhetoricians and secondhand scholars. To me they have always appeared the most odious impostors in the whole history of antiquity. Even in the military art to which they sacrificed everything else they were repeatedly distanced by others, as witness their discomfiture by the light infantry of the Athenian IPHICRATES: and with all their pretentious discipline they produced in the whole course of their wars only two officers who are known to have been gentlemen, BRASIDAS and CALLICRA TIDAS. |