the womb of their council, and grow ripe and ready to be brought forth, that then they suffer not their council to go through with the resolution' and direction, as if it depended on them, but take the matter back into their own hands, and make it appear to the world, that the decrees and final directions (which, because they come forth with prudence and power, are resembled to Pallas armed) proceeded from themselves, and not only from their authority, but (the more to add reputation to themselves) from their head and device.

Let us now speak of the inconveniences of counsel, and of the remedies. The inconveniences that have been noted in calling and using counsel, are three-first the revealing of affairs, whereby they become less secret; secondly, the weakening of the authority of princes, as if they were less of themselves; thirdly, the danger of being unfaithfully counselled, and more for the good of them that counsel, than of him that is counselled-for which inconveniences, the doctrine of Italy, and practice of France, in some kings' times, had introduced cabinet councils-a remedy worse than the disease.

As to secrecy, princes are not bound to communicate all matters with all counsellors, but may extract and select— neither is it necessary, that he that consulteth what he should do, should declare what he will do; but let princes beware that the unsecreting2 of their affairs comes not from themselves: and as for cabinet councils, it may be their motto, 'Plenus rimarum sum. One futile* person, that maketh it his glory to tell, will do more hurt than many that know it their duty to conceal. It is true there be some affairs which require extreme secrecy, which will hardly go beyond one or two persons besides the king-neither are those counsels unprosperous,-for, besides the

93

1 Resolution. Final decision.

'I' the progress of this business,

Ere a determinate resolution,

The bishops did require a respite.'-Shakespere.

2 Unsecreting. The disclosing; the divulging. Shakespere has the adjective unsecret:'

'Why have I blabbéd? Who should be true to us

When we are so unsecret to ourselves ?-Shakespere.

3Full of chinks am I.'-Ter. Eun. 1. 11, 25.

Futile. Talkative. See page 72.

secrecy, they commonly go on constantly in one spirit of direction without distraction; but then it must be a prudent king, such as is able to grind with a hand-mill-and those inward' counsellors had need also be wise men, and especially true and trusty to the king's ends, as it was with King Henry VII. of England, who in his greatest business imparted himself to none, except it were to Morton and Fox.

For weakness of authority the fable showeth the remedy-nay, the majesty of kings is rather exalted than diminished when they are in the chair of council,-neither was there ever prince bereaved of his dependencies by his council, except where there hath been either an over-greatness in one counsellor, or an over-strict combination in divers, which are things soon found and holpen."

2

For the last inconvenience, that men will counsel with an eye to themselves; certainly, 'Non inveniet fidem super terram," is meant of the nature of times, and not of all particular persons. There be that are in nature faithful and sincere, and plain and direct, not crafty and involved-let princes, above all, draw to themselves such natures. Besides, counsellors are not commonly so united but that one counsellor keepeth sentinel over another; so that if any counsel out of faction or private ends, it commonly comes to the king's ear: but the best remedy is, if princes know their counsellors, as well as their counsellors know them:

And on the other side, counsellors should not be too speculative into their sovereign's person. The true composition of a counsellor is, rather to be skilful in his master's business than in his nature; for then he is like to advise him, and not to feed his humour. It is of singular use to princes if they take the opinions of their council both separately and together; for private opinion is more free, but opinion before others is more reverend. In private, men are more bold in their own humours,

1 Inward. Intimate. All my inward friends abhorred me.'-Job. xix. 19. Several; sundry.

2 Divers.

'Divers new opinions, diverse and dangerous.'-Shakespere.

Holpen. Helped. They shall be holpen with a little help.'-Dan. xi. 34. *He will not find faith upon the earth.'-Luke xviii. 18.

5 "The greatest virtue of a prince is to know his man.'

and, in consort,' men are more obnoxious to others' humours, therefore it is good to take both-and of the inferior sort, rather in private to preserve freedom, of the greater, rather in consort to preserve respect. It is in vain for princes to take counsel concerning matters, if they take no counsel likewise concerning persons-for all matters are as dead images, and the life of the execution of affairs resteth in the good choice of persons; neither is it enough to consult concerning persons, 'secundum genera," as in an idea of mathematical description, what the kind and character of the person should be; for the greatest errors are committed, and the most judgment is shown, in the choice of individuals. It was truly said, 'Optimi consiliarii mortui”Books will speak plain when counsellors blanchi,' therefore it is good to be conversant in them, specially the books of such as themselves have been the actors upon the stage.

The councils at this day in most places are but familiar meetings, where matters are rather talked on than debated; and they run too swift to the order or act of council. It were better that, in causes of weight, the matter were propounded one day, and not spoken to till next day, 'in nocte consilium;" so was it done in the commission of union between England and Scotland, which was a grave and orderly assembly. I commend set days for petitions; for both it gives the suitors more certainty for their attendance and it frees the meetings for matters of estate, that they may 'hoc agere." In choice of committees for ripening business for the council, it is better to chuse indifferent persons, than to make an indifferency by putting in those that are strong on both sides. I commend also standing commissions; as for trade, for treasure, for war, 1 Consort. Assembly; council.

5

'In one consort there sat,

Cruel Revenge, and rancorous Despite,

Disloyal Treason, and heart-burning Hate.'-Spenser.

2 According to their kinds.

* In night is counsel.

3 The dead are the best counsellors.

• Matters of estate. Public Affairs. 'I hear her talk of matters of estate, and the Senate.'-Ben Jonson.

• Do this one thing.

7 Indifferent. Neutral ; not inclined to one side more than another.

'Cato knows neither of them,

Indifferent in his choice to sleep or die.'-Addison.

3

2

for suits, for some provinces; for where there be divers particular councils, and but one council of estate (as it is in Spain,) they are, in effect, no more than standing commissions, save1 that they have greater authority. Let such as are to inform councils out of their particular professions (as lawyers, seamen, mintmen, and the like,) be first heard before committees, and then, as occasion serves, before the council; and let them not come in multitudes, or in a tribunitious manner, for that is to clamour councils, not to inform them. A long table and a square table, or seats about the walls, seem things of form, but are things of substance; for at a long table, a few at the upper end, in effect, sway all the business; but in the other form there is more use of the counsellors' opinions that sit lower. A king, when he presides in council, let him beware how he opens his own inclination too much in that which he propoundeth; for else counsellors will but take the wind of him, and instead of giving free counsel, will sing him a song of 'placebo.'

ANNOTATIONS.

'It is better to chuse indifferent persons, than to make an indifferency by putting in those that are strong on both sides.'

Bacon is here speaking of committees; but there is, in reference to all legislative assemblies a very general apprehension of a complete preponderance of some extreme party; which arises, I conceive, from not taking into account the influence which, in every assembly, and every society, is always exercised (except in some few cases of very extraordinary excitement,

1Save. Except Of the Jews five times received I forty stripes, save one.'2 Cor. xi.

2 Mintman. Skilled in coinage. He that thinketh Spain to be some great overmatch for this estate, is no good mintman, but takes greatness of kingdoms according to their bulk and currency, and not after their intrinsic value.'-Bacon's War with Spain.

$ Clamour.

To stun with noise. (Rarely used as an active verb.)

• Clamour your tongues.'-Shakespere.

and almost of temporary disorganization) by those who are in a minority. On this subject I take leave to extract a passage from The Kingdom of Christ.1

'It might appear at first sight-and such is usually the expectation of a child of ordinary intelligence, and of all those who are deficient in an intelligent study of history, or observation of what is passing in the world that whatever party might in any meeting or in any community, obtain a majority, or in whatever other way, a superiority, would be certain to carry out their own principles to the utmost, with a total disregard of all the rest; so that in a senate for instance, consisting, suppose, of 100 members, a majority, whether of 51 to 49, or of 70 to 30, or of 95 to 5, would proceed in all respects as if the others had no existence and that no mutual concessions or compromises could take place except between parties exactly balanced. In like manner a person wholly ignorant of Mechanics might suppose that a body acted on by several unequal forces in different directions would obey altogether the strongest, and would move in the direction of that; instead of moving, as we know it ordinarily does, in a direction not coinciding with any one of them.

:

'And experience shows that in human affairs as well as in Mechanics, such expectations are not well founded. If no tolerably wise and good measures were ever carried except in an assembly where there was a complete predominance of men sufficiently enlightened and public-spirited to have a decided preference for those measures above all others, the world would, I conceive, be much worse governed than it really is.

'No doubt, the larger the proportion of judicious and patriotic individuals, the better for the community; but it seems to be the appointment of Providence that the prejudices, and passions, and interests of different men should be so various as not only to keep one another somewhat in check, but often to bring about, or greatly help to bring about, mixed results, often far preferable to anything devised or aimed at by any of the parties.

1

'The British Constitution, for instance, no intelligent reader

Kingdom of Christ. 4th edition, Appendix to Essay ii. note O, pp. 348, 349, 351, 352.