TO COMMAND AND OBEY. But it is a matter of high commendation to know how to command as well as to obey; to do both these things well is the peculiar quality of a distinguished citizen. HUSBAND AND WIFE. The domestic employment of husband and wife differs in this, that the former tries to acquire subsistence, and the latter to keep it. WHEN A STATE IS WELL GOVERNED. The supreme power must necessarily be in the hands of one person, or of a few, or of the many. When the one, the few, or the many direct their whole efforts for the common good, such states must be well governed; but when the advantage of the one, the few, or the many is alone regarded, a change for the worse must be expected. WHAT LAW IS A PLEDGE OF. For the law is an agreement, and, as Lycophron says, a pledge given that citizens will do justice to each other; but yet the law is not able to make all the citizens good and just. WHAT IS A STATE? Then it is evident that a state is not a mere community of place; nor is it established that men may be safe from injury, and maintain an interchange of good offices. All these things, indeed, must take place where there is a state, and yet they may all exist and there be no state. A state, then, may be defined to be a society of people joining together by their families and children to live happily, enjoying a life of thorough independence. HONORABLE DESCENT OF GREAT ESTEEM. The free-born and men of high birth will dispute the point with each other as being nearly on an equality; for citizens that are well born have a right to more respect than the ignoble. Honorable descent is in all nations greatly esteemed; besides, it is to be expected that the children of men of worth will be like their fathers, for nobility is the virtue of a family. LAW OUGHT TO BE SUPREME. He, then, who orders the reasoning principle of man to be supreme, seems to make God and the laws to be supreme, but he who gives the power to man gives it to a wild beast. For passion may be so called, and it is passion that brings ruin on rulers, even though they be the very best of men: wherefore the law is reason free from passion. THE MORAL LAW IS SUPERIOR TO WRITTEN LAW. The moral law is much superior to the written law, and treats of matters of greater weight; for the supreme ruler is more to be trusted than the written law, though he be inferior to the moral. WHAT FORMS A GOOD MAN. So that education and morals will be found to be almost the whole that goes to make a good man; and the same things will make a good statesman and good king. THE CORRUPTION OF THE BEST IS THE WORST. The corruption of the best and most divine form of government must be the worst. A DEMOCRACY. For when a democracy is controlled by fixed laws, a demagogue has no power, but the best AN UNION OF THE MANY WITH THE FEW DESIR-citizens fill the offices of state: when the laws are ABLE. not supreme, there demagogues are found. For the people act like a king, being one body; for the many are supreme, not as individuals, but as a whole. For the multitude, when they are collected together, have sufficient understanding for this purpose (of electing magistrates), and mingling with those of higher rank, are serviceable to the state; as some kinds of food, which would be poisonous by itself, by being mixed with the wholesome, makes the whole good; in the same way, separately, each individual is unfit to form a judgment rule supreme; for the law ought to be above all. by himself. THERE IS NO FREE STATE WHERE THE LAWS ARE THE RIGHT MAN IN THE RIGHT PLACE. A pretension to offices of state ought to be founded on those qualifications, which are part of itself. And for this reason, men of birth, independence, and fortune are right in contending with each other for office; for those who hold offices of state ought to be persons of independence and property. A state should no more consist entirely of poor men than it ought entirely of slaves. But though such persons are requisite, it is evident that there must also be justice and military valor; for without justice and valor no state can be maintained; just as without the former class a state cannot exist, and without the latter it cannot be well governed. NOT SUPREME. For there is no free state where the laws do not PEOPLE LOVE THEIR ANCIENT CUSTOMS. For people do not change at once, but love their ancient customs, making gradual changes; so that ancient laws remain in force, while the power continues with those who bring about a revolution in the state. THE MIDDLE STATE TO BE PREFERRED. In every state the people are divided into three kinds: the very rich, the very poor, and, thirdly, those who are between them. Since, then, it is universally acknowledged that the mean is best, it is evident that even in respect to fortune, a middle state is to be preferred; for that state is most likely to submit to reason. For those who are very handsome, or very strong, or very noble, or, on the hand, those who are very poor, or very weak, or very mean, are with difficulty induced to obey reason. And this because the one class is supercilious, and "sin as it were with a cartrope," the other rascally and mean; and the crimes of each arise respectively from insolence and villany. A HOUSE Divided AGAINST ITSELF. For a government in a constant state of turmoil is weak. A FIRM STATE. The only stable state is that where every one possesses an equality in the eye of the law, accord THE BEST STATE WHERE THE MEAN OUTNUMBERS ing to his merit, and enjoys his own unmolested. THE EXTREMES. TAKE CARE THAT NOTHING BE DONE CONTRARY It is evident, then, that the most perfect politi- TION. man's whole estate. QUALIFICATIONS OF A STATESMAN. There are three qualifications which ought to be possessed by a man who aspires to fill the high offices of state; first, he must be well disposed, and prepared to support the established constitution of his country; next, he ought to have a special aptitude for the office which he fills; and, thirdly, WHERE THE MIDDLE CLASS IS LARGE LESS SEDI- he should have the kind of virtue and love of justice which suits the particular state in which he lives. But it is clear that the state where the middle ranks predominate is the best, for it alone is free from seditious movements. Where such a state is large, there are fewer seditions and insurrections to disturb the peace; and for this reason extensive states are more peaceful internally, as the middle ranks are numerous. In small states it is easy to pass to the two extremes, so as to have scarcely any middle ranks remaining; but all are either very poor or very rich. THE RULE OF HUSBANDMEN AND MECHANICS CON TRASTED. Should the number of husbandmen be excessive, it will be of the best kind; if of mechanics and those who work for pay, of the worst. NOBILITY AND MERIT ARE ONLY AMONGST A FEW. For nobility and worth are to be found only amongst a few, but their opposite amongst the many; for there is not one man of merit and high spirit in a hundred, while there are many destitute of both to be found everywhere. THE BEGINNING IS THE HALF OF THE BUSINESS. For the mischief lies in the beginning; for the beginning is said to be "half of the whole." WHENCE SEDITIONS ARISE IN A DEMOCRACY. Democracies are chiefly subject to revolutions from the dishonest conduct of demagogues. For partly by lodging informations against men of property, and partly by rousing the common people against them, they induce them to unite; for a common fear will make the greatest enemies to join together. THE GOOD NEVER FLATTER. On this account tyrants are fond of bad men; for they like to be flattered. No man of high and generous spirit is ever willing to indulge in this habit; the good may feel affection for others, but will not flatter them. Besides, bad men assist them in their evil deeds: "Like to like," as the proverb says. TYRANTS ARE AT ENMITY WITH MEN OF MERIT. with men of merit as disaffected to their governFor which reason they are always at variance ment, not only because they are unwilling to be governed despotically, but because they are faithful to their own principles and to their friends, refusing to inform against themselves or others. DEFINITION OF DEMOCRACY. On the contrary, a democracy is a government in the hands of men of low birth, poverty, and vulgar employments. ORIGINAL SIN. For the power of doing whatever a man pleases is not able to check that evil particle which is in every man, UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE. The last and worst form of democracy is where every citizen has a share in the administration: few states can endure such a form, nor can it exist for any length of time unless it is well supported by laws and purity of manners. PENALTIES NECESSARY TO KEEP TOGETHER HUMAN SOCIETY. For if human society cannot be carried on without actions at law, it is impossible that it should exist without the infliction of penalties. HAPPINESS DEPENDS ON VIRTUE AND WISDOM. Let us be well persuaded that every one of us possesses happiness in proportion to his virtue and wisdom, and according as he acts in obedience to their suggestion, taking God himself as our example, who is completely happy and blessed, not from any external good, but in Himself, and because He is such by nature. IMPORTANCE OF GOOD WATER. Since every attention should be given to the health of the inhabitants, it is of great importance that the city should have a good situation, and, next, that the inhabitants should have good water to drink; and this must not be regarded as a matter of secondary moment. For what is used chiefly and in great quantities for the support of the body must, above all, contribute to its health. And this is the influence which the air and the water exercise over the body. Wherefore, in all wise governments the water ought to be apportioned to different purposes, if all is not equally good, and if there is not abundance of both kinds, that for drinking should be separated from that which is used for other purposes. INFLUENCE OF NATURE, HABIT, AND REASON ON MANKIND. Men are made good and honorable in three ways,-by nature, by custom, and by reason. For, in the first place, each individual ought to be a man, and not any other animal; that is, that he should possess a particular character both of body and soul. In some things, however, it is of no consequence to be born with them, for custom makes great changes, there being some things in nature capable of change either for the better or the worse. Now, other animals live chiefly a life of mere nature, and in very few things according to custom, but man lives also according to reason, with which he alone is endowed, wherefore he ought to make all these accord with each other; for, if they are persuaded that it is best to follow some other way, men often act contrary to nature and custom. A MASTER SHOULD SUPERINTEND ALL THINGS. The saying of the Persian and of the African are both to be highly commended; for the former being asked what was best for fattening a horse, said, "The eye of the master;" and the African being asked what was the best manure, answered, "The footsteps of the master." EARLY TO RISE. It is also well to be up before daybreak, for such habits contribute to health, wealth, and wisdom. A DISCREET WIFE. But the prudent and discreet wife will very properly regard the behavior of her husband a the pattern which she ought to follow and the law of her life, invested with a divine sanction from the marriage tie; for if she can induce herself t submit patiently to her husband's mode of life hold affairs; but if not, she will not find it s she will have no difficulty to manage her house easy. PARENTS SHOULD SET A GOOD EXAMPLE TO THEIR CHILDREN. For unless parents set a good example to thei children, they will furnish a plain reason to b used by them against themselves. And this is t be feared, that, if they have not lived an honora ble life, their sons will despise them and abando them in their old age. MAN AN IMITATIVE ANIMAL. For imitation is natural to man from his infancy Man differs from other animals particularly i this, that he is imitative, and acquires his rud ments of knowledge in this way; besides, the de light in it is universal. THE RIDICULOUS. For the ridiculous is produced by any defe that is unattended by pain or by fatal cons quences; thus an ugly and deformed countenanc does not fail to cause laughter, if it is not occ sioned by pain. HAPPINESS SPRINGS FROM ACTION. But the principal of these parts is the combin tion of the incidents; for tragedy is imitation n of individuals but of actions in general, of huma life, of good and bad fortune, for happine springs from action; the main purpose of life action and not quality, and though the manners men spring from their qualities, their happiness misery depends on their actions. NO VERY SMALL OR VERY LARGE ANIMALS CẢ BE VERY BEAUTIFUL. that has constituent parts, in order that it may Then as to size, an animal, or any other thi beautiful, must not only have those justly ce nected, but should also have a certain proper sia for beauty depends on size as well as symmet for which reason no very small animal can beautiful, for the view being made in almost imperceptible space of time, will be confuse cannot be taken in at once, the unity and co nor could a very large one, for, as the whole vi pleteness that should result from it will esca the spectator. MAN EASILY AFFECTED TO GRIEF OR JOY. As far as it is possible, the poet should en into the spirit of the subject while he is comp ing; for those who are roused by passions most likely to express those passions with for he who is really agitated storms, and he who really angry upbraids most naturally. MORAL CHARACTER. Moral character nearly, so to say, carries with it the highest power of causing a thing to be believed. A DEMOCRACY. Thus a democracy, not only when relaxed, but if overstrained, becomes weaker, till at last it will pass into an oligarchy in the same way as hookedness or flatness of the nose not only when they relax approach the mean, but also when they become excessively hooked or flat dispose the nostrils in such a way as no longer to resemble the nasal organ. DEFINITION OF HAPPINESS. Let happiness be defined to be good fortune in union with virtue—or independency of life or the life that is most agreeable attended with security-or plenty of property and slaves, with the power to preserve and augment it; for all mankind agree that one or more of these things amount nearly to happiness. EVILS BRING MEN TOGETHER. Whence it is said that misery brings men together, when the same thing happens to be hurtful to both. So Shakespeare ("Tempest," act ii. sc. 2)- GOD IS A SPIRIT. In regard to the Deity we must consider Him as (a spirit) the most powerful, immortal, and perfection itself; wherefore, being invisible to mortal eyes, He is seen by his works. So 1 Timothy (i. 17)-" Now, unto the King eternal, immortal, invisible, the only wise God, be honor and glory forever and ever." GOD FROM ETERNITY TO ETERNITY. God extends from eternity to eternity. So Psalms (xc. 2)-"Before the mountains were brought forth, or ever Thou hadst formed the earth and the world, even from everlasting to everlasting, Thou art God." GOD IS HAPPY AND BLESSED. God is happy and blessed from nothing external to Himself, but Himself from Himself. So 1 Timothy (vi. 15)—“ Who is the blessed and only Potentate, the King of kings and Lord of lords." GOD IS SELF-SUFFICIENT. It is evident that God stands in need of nothing. So Psalms (1. 9, 10)-“I will take no bullock out of thy house, . . . . for every beast of the forest is mine." ONE GOD WITH VARIOUS NAMES. Though he be one Being, God has many names, being called according to the variety of outward conditions of things, which he is always changing. So 1 Corinthians (viii. 4)-"There is none other God but Towards such as acknowledge themselves to be one." justly punished we cease from our wrath. So Proverbs (xv. 1)—“A soft answer turneth away wrath.” "NO FEAR IN LOVE." For no one loves the man whom he fears. So 1 John (iv. 18)-"There is no fear in love; but perfect love casteth out fear." SIGNS OF ARROGANCE. Again, to talk about one's self, and to be one's own trumpeter, and to assert that to be one's own which belongs to another, these are proofs of ar rogance. ALL THINGS FULL OF GOD. All things are full of the gods. ARRIANUS. FLOURISHED A.D. 136. FLAVIUS ARRIANUS, a native of Nicomedia in Bithynia, flourished in the reign of Adrian, when we find him, A.D. 136, governor of Cappadocia. He was one of the most celebrated pupils of the philosopher Epictetus, under whom he studied at Nicopolis in Epirus. The first work which he published was called "Encheiridion" (The Manual), and contains the moral doctrines of his master, being still preserved. He also wrote a work entitled "The Philosophical Disquisitions of So Psalms (lxxii. 19)—"Let the whole earth be full of His Epictetus," of which four books still remain. glory." A VIRTUOUS LIFE. To lead a virtuous life is pleasant, and to die is by no means bitter to these who look forward to immortal fame. THE EVENTS OF FORTUNE ARE UNEXPECTED. The events of fortune are unexpected, and therefore can never be guarded against by men. AXIONICUS. AXIONICUS, an Athenian poet of the middle comedy, of whom some fragments have been preserved. LENDING MONEY TO THE WICKED. When a man lends money to the wicked, he justly gets pain for his interest. BATON. FLOURISHED ABOUT B.C. 280. BATON, an Athenian comic poet of the new comedy, flourished about B.C. 280, of whom we have some fragments. TO ERR IS HUMAN. Being a man, thou hast erred; but in life it is a wonder if a man has been prosperous through life. BION. FLOURISHED ABOUT B.C. 280. BION, a bucolic poet, was born at Phlossæ, on the river Meles, near Smyrna, but little is known of his history except what is told us in the third Idyll of Moschus, who laments his untimely death by poison. Some of his poems are extant entire, but of others we have only fragments. 66 THE KING OF TERRORS." Thou fliest far, O Adonis, and comest to Acheron and its gloomy and cruel king, but I live in misery, and am a goddess, and cannot follow thee. Virgil (Georg. iv. 469) says--" And he approached the Manes and their fearful king, hearts not to be softened by the prayers of men." In Job (xviii. 14) we find "His confidence shall be rooted out of his tabernacle; and it shall bring him to the King of Terrors." Spenser, in his "Faërie Queen," says― 66 "O what avails it of immortal seed To been ybred, and never born to die; 66 HE SHALL FLEE AWAY AS A DREAM." Art thou dying, O thrice-regretted? Away my love did fly, even as a dream; and widowed is Cytherea, and idle are the Loves along my halls. Thus Job (xx. 8)-" He shall fly away as a dream, and shall not be found, yea, he shall be chased away as a vision of the night." A LUXURIOUS LIFE. Lay him down on those soft vestments, in which he slept the livelong night with thee, on a golden couch. Long thou for Adonis, a sad sight though he be; and lay him amid chaplets of flowers; all with him, since he is dead, ay, all flowers have be come withered. In St. Luke (vii. 25) we find-" Behold, they which are gor geously apparelled, and live delicately, are in king's courts." Milton in his "Comus," near the end, says— "Beds of hyacinths and roses Where young Adonis oft reposes, SIGN OF MOURNING. Around him the weeping Loves set up the wail, having their locks shorn for Adonis; and one was trampling on his arrows, another on his bow, and another was breaking his well-feathered quiver. In Ezekiel (xxvii. 31) we find the same customs-" They shall make themselves utterly bald for thee." And in Ovid (Amor. iii. 9,7)-" Behold the son of Venus bears his upturned quiver, and broken bow and quenched torch." 66 DANCE TURNED INTO MOURNING." Hymenæus has quenched every torch at the door-posts, shredded and flung the marriage wreath away; and no more is Hymen, no more is sung Hymen the song, but alas! alas! is chanted alas, alas! for Adonis wail the Graces far more than Hymenæus. In Lamentations (v. 15) we find-"The joy of our heart is ceased; our dance is turned into mourning." For if Saturn's son or Fate had assigned us a two-fold lifetime, so that one portion might be passed in joys and pleasures, and one in woes, i might be possible that he who had his woes firs should have his joys at last. But since the gods have allotted but one life to man, and this a brie one-too brief for all we have to do-why should we, ah! wretched men, toil and moil over never ending labors? To what end should we waste our health on gains and arts, sighing always for mor wealth? We surely all forget our mortal statehow brief the life allotted us by Fate. Job (xiv. 1) says-"Man that is born of a woman is of fev days and full of trouble." And in the Epistle of James (iv. 18 -"Go to now, ye that say, To-day or to-morrow we will g into such a city, and continue there a year, and buy and seil and get gain; whereas ye know not what shall be on the mor row: for what is life? It is even a vapor, that appeareth fo a little time and then vanisheth away." THE DROP. From the frequent drop, as the proverb says ever falling, even the stone is worn at last into a hollow. |