the improper forms, Monies, Chimnies, and Journies, are not unusual.

5. Nouns ending in fe change fe into ves, as Life, lives; but Fife, Strife, and Safe, only assume s, thereby avoiding conformity in sound to the noun Fives, and the verbs Strives and Saves.

Several nouns that end in ƒ, conforming to the old singular termination fe, have ves in the plural; as Calf*, Elf, Half, Leaf, Loaf, Self, Sheaf, Shelf, Thief, Wolf; - Wharf has Wharfs, and sometimes Wharves. The plural of Staff ought to be Staffs, as in the compounds Flagstaffs, Distaffs; but it is commonly Staves.

6. Nouns ending in o, probably on account of the old termination being oe, form the plural by annexing es. Thus, we have Cargo, cargoes; Hero, heroes; Wo, woes; Negro, negroes. When a vowel precedes o, the plural takes s only, as in the words Cameo, Embryo, Folio, Nuncio, Punctilio, Seraglio. The following words, also, generally form the plural by adding s;-Bamboo, Cento, Canto, Duodecimo, Grotto, Halo, Junto, Memento, Motto, Octavo, Portico, Quarto, Solo, Two, Tyro, Zero.

7. The old plural form in en has still some exemplifications in our language: thus, Ox, oxen; Child, children. Man, and its compounds, have Men; we must say, however, Mussulmans, Turkomans, Talismans, as these are not com

pounds of the English word Man.

8. Some nouns have two distinct plural forms. Pea has Peas (the seeds as distinct objects) and Pease (the species); Die has Dies (for coining) and Dice (for gaming); Penny has Pennies (coins) and Pence (value); Brother has Brothers (relatives), and Brethren (members of a society). Swine is sometimes used for Sows, and Kine for Cows.

* "The possessive case of calf is usually pronounced like the plural, though not so written; calf's head pronounced calves-head." - Nares' Orthoepy, p. 100.

9. Foot, Goose, and Tooth, change oo into ee. Louse and Mouse have Lice and Mice.

10. The words Deer, Sheep, Trout, Salmon, Pike, Alms, Amends, Means*, Pains, Riches, Wages, and a few others, have only one form for both numbers. News is now generally regarded as singular.

11. Many concise names of sciences, ending in ics, are often regarded as singular, though they have a plural termination; as Mathematics, the science of things mathematical; Ethics, Optics, Pneumatics, &c. On the contrary, some abbreviated forms, as Horse and Foot, meaning horse soldiers and foot soldiers, though singular in form, retain the plural force of the suppressed noun.

12. Such usages as 10 stone, 3 score, 18 sail, 12 head (of cattle), exemplify the preservation of a plural sense in the absence of the plural's etymological distinction.

13. Proper names are sometimes pluralised, but do not then cease to be proper names, unless they are expressive of some quality or property independent of the name.† Thus ; "The twelve Cæsars;" "The two Scipios;" "The Johnsons;""The Henrys." The word Henry should not have the y changed into ie, when we mean only persons of the name of Henry.

14. When a proper name has a title prefixed, it is usual to pluralise only the title; as, "The Misses Thompson;"‡ "The Messrs. Smith." Double titles have double plurals, as The Lords Commissioners;" "The Lords Bishops."

66

15. In some peculiar plural forms we sometimes find an apostrophe, or elevated comma, preceding s; as in the examples, "Dot your i's and cross your t's;" "There are too many and's in that sentence." This might be avoided

* A mean signifies "the middle between two extremes."

† See Chap. III. § 3. p. 11.

Arnold prefers "The Miss Thompsons." Goldsmith writes "The

two Miss Flamboroughs."

by italicising all but the s; thus, the is, the ts, the ands.* We write, however, "The Ayes and the Noes."

16. Some compound words, consisting of a noun followed by a descriptive term or phrase, add s to the first word; as Court-martial, courts-martial; Cousin-german, cousins-german; Knight errant, knights-errant ; Aid-de-camp, aids-decamp; Father-in-law, fathers-in-law. But we should say, Spoonfuls and Handfuls, not Spoonsful or Handsful, because only one spoon or hand is supposed. So also Mouse-traps, Man-traps, are obviously correct forms. Such forms as Camera obscura, Ave-Maria, Et cetera, Terra cotta, add s to the latter words.

17. Some foreign terms have been borrowed into our language with their native plural forms. The following are the most useful:

(a) Latin and Latinised Nouns changing us into i.

(6) Latin Nouns changing a into ae.

Formula, Lamina, Larva, Macula, Nebula, Scoria.

(c) Latin and Latinised Nouns changing um into a.

(d) Greek Nouns changing on into a.

Aphelion, Automaton, Criterion, Ephemeron, Phenomenon,

Parhelion, Perihelion.

*Arnold advocates the use of the apostrophe.

(e) Latin and Greek Nouns changing is into es.

Amanuensis, Antithesis, Analysis, Axis, Basis, Ellipsis, Hypothesis, Metamorphosis, Parenthesis, Phasis; Ignis Fatuus becomes Ignes Fatui.

(f) Latin Nouns changing x into ces and ex into ices. Apex, Appendix, Calx, Index, Radix, Vertex, Vortex.

Notes.-Ephemeris has Ephemerides; Aphis, aphides; Sphinx, sphinges; Genus, genera. The following have the singular and plural alike; Apparatus, Congeries, Hiatus, Series, Species, and Superficies. The following are only plural; Antipodes, Illuminati, Literati, Minutiæ.

The French terms, Beau, Madame, and Monsieur, have respectively Beaux, Mesdames, and Messieurs (contracted Messrs.).

The Italian terms, Bandit or Banditto, Dilettante, and Virtuoso, have Banditti, Dilettanti, and Virtuosi.

18. We assign, however, occasionally to some foreign words our ordinary plural terminations. Thus we say, Encomiums, Criterions, Formulas, Appendixes, Calxes. We say Cherubs and Seraphs, as well as Cherubim and Seraphim; Dogmas rather than Dogmata; Stamens (in botanical science) as well as Stamina. Simile has Similies (from the Latin plural, similia). Genius has Geniuses to denote persons of genius, and Genii to denote aerial beings. Index has Indexes for tables of contents, or pointers, and Indices for certain mathematical signs.

Bolus, Fungus, Isthmus, and Prospectus, add es.

1. THERE are three genders, the Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neuter; the first denoting names of males, as Man, Lion; the second, names of females, as Woman, Lioness; and the third, names of objects neither male nor female, as Books, Chair, Soul, Industry.

There is no impropriety in this threefold distinction, because gender is not sex, but a verbal property; - masculine is not synonymous with male, nor feminine with female.

Gender, however, is not so arbitrarily a verbal property in the English, as in the Latin, French, and other languages. The English language conforms to the order of nature; whereas in French all nouns are fictitiously divided into masculine and feminine, and in Latin the gender is regulated chiefly by the terminations of words.

2. Our language possesses an advantage over almost all others, in permitting us to assign life and sex, imaginatively, to inanimate objects. Thus we can attribute the masculine gender to Time, Death, Sleep, the Sun, and generally to such nouns as convey an idea of strength, energy, or any masculine quality; and we can attribute the feminine gender to Nature, the Earth, the Moon, the Church, and generally to such nouns as denote something winning, gentle, fruitful, &c.

In these instances, however, and many others, the distinction of gender is not impressed upon the word by any form of inflexion.

3. Our chief terminational indication of gender is that of the feminine by ess, as Negro, negress; Benefactor, benefactress; Prince, princess; Tiger, tigress; Abbot, abbess.