seventeenth century. But the old system of fallows, by which half the land always lay idle, was steadily adhered to.

"At the beginning of the eighteenth century, and long after, we see no struggle against great social evils, on the part of the clergy or the laity. Every attempt at social reform was left to the legislature, which was utterly indifferent to those manifestations of wretchedness and crime that ought to have been dealt with by the strong hand of law. Education, in any large sense, there was none. Disease committed its ravages, unchecked by any attempt to mitigate the evils of standing pools before the cottage door, and pestilent ditches in the towns. These were not peculiar evils of the last century; they continued long beyond that century, because they were the results of social ignorance. But there were evils so abhorrent to humanity, that their endurance, without the slightest endeavour to mitigate or remove them, was a reproach to that age. The horrible state of the prisons was well known. The nosegay laid on the desk of the judge at every assize proclaimed that starvation and filth were sweeping away far more than perished by the executioner, terrible as that number was. The justices never entered the jails. The vicar heeded not the Saviour's reproach-'I was sick, and in prison, and ye visited me not.' London, and all other great towns were swarming with destitute children, who slept in ash-holes and at street doors. They were left to starve, or to become thieves, and in due course be hanged. The Church of England, in 1701, established 'The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts.' The worse than heathen at home were left to swell the festering mass of sin and sorrow, until the whole fabric of society was in peril from its outcasts, and no man's life or property was safe."*

Physical science, from the accession of Charles II, began to advance with some rapidity, and a greater lustre is cast over this age than over any other in the history of the higher

Knight's "Popular History of England."

sciences, by the discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, perhaps the most profound philosopher the world has ever produced.

Charles I encouraged the fine arts, and his example was imitated by some of the nobility and wealthy commoners; but during the supremacy of the Puritan party art languished, and the royal and many private collections of paintings were broken up. For some time after the Restoration, painting was mainly confined to portraits, the principal artists being Sir Peter Lely and Sir Godfrey Kneller.

In the earlier part of this period flourished one great architect, Inigo Jones, who introduced into this country the Palladian style; and in the last four reigns Sir Christopher Wren, an architect of consummate skill, adorned the metropolis with about fifty churches, in addition to the magnificent cathedral of St. Paul.

The most noted historians were Raleigh (1552–1618); Camden (1551-1623); Fuller (1608-1661); Clarendon (16081674); and Bishop Burnet (1643-1715).

The principal theological writers were Bishop Hall (1574— 1656); Usher (1580-1656); Chillingworth (1602—1644); Leighton (1613-1684); Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667); Baxter (1615-1691); Bunyan (1628-1688); Barrow (1630—1677); Howe (1630-1705); South (1633-1716); Tillotson (1630) -1694); Owen (1616-1683); and Matthew Henry (1662— 1714).

The greatest philosophical writers were Bacon (1561—1626); Cudworth (1617-1688); and Locke (1632—1704).

The miscellaneous prose writers were Isaac Walton (1593— 1683; Evelyn (1620-1706); Addison (1672-1719); Steele (1671-1729); Defoe (1661-1731); and Swift (1667-1745).

The chief poetical writers were Ben Jonson (1574—1637); Massinger (1584-1640); Denham (1615-1668); Milton (1608 -1674); Butler (1612-1680); Cowley (1618-1667); Waller 1605-1687); Dryden (1632-1701); and Watts (1674-1748).

THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK,

GEORGE I.

Reigned from 1714 to 1727.

Birth.-George I was born at Hanover, May 28, 1660. Descent. He was the son of Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover, and Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth. The latter was the daughter of James I.

Marriage. He espoused Sophia Dorothea of Zell; who, on a charge of infidelity to her husband, was imprisoned in the castle of Ahlden, where she died after a confinement of thirty-two years.

Children.-George, his successor; and Sophia, who married Frederick William of Prussia.

Important Events.—Bolingbroke, who was chief minister at the time of Anne's death, appears to have been plotting for the restoration of the Stuart line in the person of James, "the Old Pretender," on the decease of the queen; but the suddenness of that event and the dexterity of the leading Whigs prevented him from consummating his design.

A Whig administration was formed by the new sovereign, and they proceeded to impeach those of the ministers of the late queen who had negotiated the treaty of Utrecht. Bolingbroke and the Duke of Ormond fled to France; but Harley, Earl of Oxford, remained, and was committed to the Tower.

In September, 1715, a Jacobite rebellion broke out in Scotland, headed by the Earl of Mar; and a little later the Earl of Derwentwater appeared in arms in the north of England. Mar was defeated at SHERIFFMUIR, in Perthshire, by the Duke of Argyle (Nov. 13); and on the same day the other portion of the insurgents capitulated at Preston. James himself landed at Peterhead in December, but he soon found that there was no hope of success, and escaped to France. Lords Derwentwater

N

and Kenmure were executed; Lords Wintoun and Nithisdale escaped from the Tower after conviction, and many others were put to death.

In January, 1717, the Triple Alliance was signed between France, England, and Holland; and in August, 1718, the Quadruple Alliance between the same powers and the emperor. Both were levelled at the aggressive policy of Spain under Cardinal Alberoni, to frustrate whose designs a fleet was sent to the Mediterranean, commanded by Sir George Byng. He gained a great victory over the Spaniards off CAPE PASSARO (Aug. 11, 1718); and the course of the contest proving unfavourable to Spain, Alberoni was dismissed and peace concluded (1720).

In 1720 the South Sea Bill was passed, the object of which was to consolidate the national debt, the South Sea Company thus being the only public creditor. Various devices were adopted by the company to enhance the value of the shares, which rose from 100l. to 10007.; and the whole country became infected with a mania for speculation. After a few months the bubble burst, and many families were utterly ruined. The nation seemed on the verge of bankruptcy, but it was saved by the judicious financial arrangements of Robert Walpole.

A new Jacobite conspiracy was discovered in 1722; and one of the confederates named Layer was executed. Bishop Atterbury, who was implicated, was deprived of his see, and banished from the kingdom.

The Riot Act was passed in 1715, and the Septennial Act, extending the possible duration of each parliament to seven years, in 1716. An attempt was made to carry an act for limiting the royal prerogative of creating peers, but it was thrown out chiefly through the exertions of Walpole (1719). The convocation of the clergy was prorogued in 1717 on account of a dispute relative to a sermon preached by Dr. Hoadly, and, till recently, it has never been allowed to sit for business.

Dean Swift raised popular discontent in Ireland on the introduction of a new copper coinage (1724). Parker, Earl of Mac

clesfield, and Lord Chancellor, was impeached for fraud in his office (1725). Inoculation for the smallpox was introduced into this country by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu.

[Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Peterwardein, 1716. Charles XII killed at the siege of Frederickshall, 1718. The Mississippi Bubble in France, 1719. Death of Peter the Great, 1725.]

Death.-George left England for Hanover on the 3rd of June, 1727. On the 9th he arrived at Delden, apparently in excellent health, but on the following morning he was seized with an apoplectic fit, and before the carriage reached Osnabruck, where his brother resided, he expired.

GEORGE II.

Reigned from 1727 to 1760.

Birth.-George II was born at Hanover, Oct. 30, 1683. Descent. He was the only son of George I. Marriage. He espoused Caroline of Anspach. Children.-Frederick, Prince of Wales; William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland; and five other children.

Important Events.-Contrary to the general expectation, Walpole was continued as chief minister of the crown, which office he held till 1742.

In 1733 he introduced an excise bill, which if passed would have proved beneficial to the nation, but it was vehemently opposed, and he therefore prudently yielded to the public opinion.

In 1736 the Porteous riot occurred in Scotland. At the execution of a smuggler at Edinburgh, Porteous, captain of the city guard, ordered his officers to fire upon the people, who were disorderly; he was tried and sentenced to be executed, but the government granted a reprieve, which so exasperated some of the inhabitants that they broke open the prison and hung their victim on a dyer's pole. The perpetrators of this atrocious deed were never discovered.