weather been variable-calms alternating with storms-snow strata of different density would have formed, a condition which we would immediately have noticed when driving in our tent poles.

Our dead reckoning had heretofore always given the same results as our astronomical observations. During the last eight days of our march we had continuous sunshine. Every day we stopped at noon in order to measure the meridian altitude and every evening we made an observation for azimuth. On December 13 the meridian altitude gave 89° 37', dead reckoning, 89° 38'. In latitude 88° 25′ we had been able to make our last good observation of azimuth. Subsequently this method of observation became valueless. As these last observations gave practically the same result and the difference was almost a constant one, we used the observation made in 88° 25′ as a basis. We calculated that we should reach our goal on December 14.

December 14 dawned. It seemed to me as if we slept a shorter time, as if we ate breakfast in greater haste, and as if we started earlier on this morning than on the preceding days. As heretofore, we had clear weather, beautiful sunshine, and only a very light breeze. We advanced well. Not much was said. I think that each one of us was occupied with his own thoughts. Probably only one thought dominated us all, a thought which caused us to look eagerly toward the south and to scan the horizon of this unlimited plateau. Were we the first or

?

The distance calculated was covered. Our goal had been reached. Quietly, in absolute silence, the mighty plateau lay stretched out before us. No man had ever yet seen it, no man had ever yet stood on it. In no direction was a sign to be seen. It was indeed a solemn moment when, each of us grasping the flagpole with one hand, we all hoisted the flag of our country on the geographical South Pole, on "King Haakon VII Plateau."

During the night, as our watches showed it to be, three of our men went around the camp in a circle 10 geographical miles (11.6 statute miles) in diameter and erected cairns, while the other two men remained in the tent and made hourly astronomical observations of the sun. These gave 89° 55′ S. We might well have been satisfied with this result, but we had time to spare and the weather was fine. Why should we not try to make our observations at the pole itself? On December 16, therefore, we transported our tent the remaining 5 miles to the south and camped there. We arranged everything as comfortably as possible in order to make a round of observations during the 24 hours. The altitude was measured every hour by four men with the sextant and artificial horizon. These observations will be worked out at the University of Christiania.

This tent camp served as the center of a circle which we drew with a radius of 5 miles [on the circumference of which] cairns were erected. A small tent which we had brought with us in order to designate the South Pole was put up here and the Norwegian flag with the pennant of the Fram was hoisted above it. This Norwegian home received the name of "Polheim." According to the observed weather conditions, this tent may remain there for a long time. In it we left a letter addressed to His Majesty, King Haakon VII, in which we reported what we had done. The next person to come there will take the letter with him and see to its delivery. In addition, we left there several pieces of clothing, a sextant, an artificial horizon, and a hypsometer.

On December 17 we were ready to return. On our journey to the pole we had covered 863 miles, according to the measurements of the odometer; our mean daily marches were therefore 15 miles. When we left the pole we had 3 sleds and 17 dogs. We now experienced the great satisfaction of being able to increase our daily rations, a measure which previous expeditions had not been able to carry out, as they were all forced to reduce their rations, and that at an early date. For the dogs, too, the rations were increased, and from time to time they received one of their comrades as additional food. The fresh meat revived the dogs and undoubtedly contributed to the good results of the expedition.

One last glance, one last adieu, we sent back to "Polheim." Then we resumed our journey. We still see the flag; it still waves to us. Gradually it diminishes in size and finally entirely disappears from our sight. A last greeting to the Little Norway lying at the South Pole.

We left King Haakon VII Plateau, which lay there bathed in sunshine, as we had found it on our outward journey. The mean temperature during our sojourn there was -13° C. It seemed, however, as though the weather was much milder.

I shall not tire my esteemed auditors by a detailed description of our return, but shall limit myself to some of the interesting episodes. The splendid weather with which we were favored on our return displayed to us the panorama of the mighty mountain range which is the continuation of the two ranges which unite in 86° S. The newly discovered range runs in a southeasterly direction and culminates in domes of an elevation of 10,000 to over 16,000 feet. In 88° S. this range disappears in the distance below the horizon. The whole complex of newly discovered mountain ranges, which may extend a distance of over 500 miles, has been named the Queen Maud Ranges.

We found all of our 10 provision depots again. The provisions, of which we finally had a superabundance, were taken with us to the eightieth parallel and cached there. From the eighty-sixth parallel on we did not need to apportion our rations; everyone could eat as much as he desired.

After an absence of 99 days we reached our winter quarters, "Framheim," on January 25. We had, therefore, covered the journey of 864 miles in 39 days, during which we did not allow ourselves any days of rest. Our mean daily march, therefore, amounted to 22.1 miles. At the end of our journey two of our sleds were in good condition and 11 dogs healthy and happy. Not once had we needed to help our dogs and to push the sleds ourselves.

Our provisions consisted of pemmican, biscuits, desiccated milk, and chocolate. We therefore did not have very much variety, but it was healthful and robust nourishment which built up the body, and it was of course just this that we needed. The best proof of this was that we felt well during the whole time and never had reason to complain of our food, a condition which has occurred so often on long sledge journeys and must be considered a sure indication of improper nourishment.

During our absence, Lieut. Prestrud with his two companions had done excellent work toward the east and in the vicinity of the Bay of Whales. They succeeded in reaching King Edward VII Land, which Scott had discovered, and in confirming what we had seen. It was found that the Alexandra Mountains are a range entirely snow covered and with an elevation of 1,230 feet. They run in a southeasterly direction as far as the eye can reach and are bounded on the north by mountains 2,000 feet high, which were named "Nutakar" by Scott.

The observations made on this expedition in the neighborhood of "Framheim" are of great interest. They resulted in determining that the Bay of Whales has a snow-covered bottom.

Simultaneously with our work on land, scientific observations were made on board the Fram by Capt. Nilsen and his companions which probably stamp this expedition as the most valuable of all. The Fram made a voyage from Buenos Aires to the coast of Africa and back, covering a distance of 8,000 nautical miles, during which a series of oceanographical observations was made at no less than 60 stations. The total length of the Fram's journey equaled twice the circumnavigation of the globe. The Fram has successfully braved dangerous voyages which made high demands upon her crew. The trip out of the ice region in the fall of 1911 was of an especially serious character. Her whole complement then comprised only 10 men. Through night and fog, through storm and hurricane, through

pack ice and between icebergs the Fram had to find her way. One may well say that this was an achievement that can be realized only by experienced and courageous sailors, a deed that honors the whole nation.

In conclusion, you will allow me to say that it was these same 10 men who on February 15, 1911, hoisted the flag of their country, the Norwegian flag, on a more southerly point of the earth than the crew of any other ship whose keel ever cleft the waves. This is a worthy record in our record century. Ferthest north, farthest south did our dear old Fram penetrate.

1 The Fram penetrated to the head of the Bay of Whales, 78° 41' S. (New York Times, Mar. 9, 1912)

ICEBERGS AND THEIR LOCATION IN NAVIGATION.

By Prof. HOWARD T. BARNES, D. Sc., F. R. S.
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

[With 3 plates.]

ORIGIN OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC ICE.

The icebergs met with in the north Atlantic each year are almost entirely derived from western Greenland. The interior of Greenland is covered by a large ice sheet forming an enormous glacier, which gradually moves outward, meeting on its journey mountains and islands which form a fringe of varying width. This mountainous belt is penetrated by deep fiords, through which the ice passes toward the sea. As the huge ice sheets are forced into the sea they are broken off and set adrift as bergs. The "calving," as it is called, may take place in a number of ways.

Von Drygalski distinguishes three classes of bergs; those of the first class are the most massive of all, and separate with a sound like thunder from the entire thickness of the glacier front. They result from the buoyant action of the water as the glacier pushes out into the deep water. They usually regain their equilibrium after rhythmic oscillation, and float away in an upright position. Bergs of the second class are broken off under water from time to time. They rise and often turn over before they gain equilibrium, displaying in this way the beautiful blue color of the lowest layers of ice.. Bergs of the third class form almost continuously, and consist of large and small fragments which separate along the crevasses and fall into the sea.

The size of the pieces of ice set adrift varies very much; but bergs 60 to 100 feet to the top of their walls, with spires and pinnacles from 200 to 250 feet high, are most often found. The length of such an average berg would be from 300 to 500 yards. The depth of these masses under water is variously given as from seven to eight times the height, but this is not always the case. It is possible to have a berg as high out of the water as it is deep below the surface, since the submergence depends entirely on mass and not on height.

1 Lecture before the Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, Friday, May 31, 1912. Reprinted by permission, with author's appendices and additional illustrations.