He fashioneth the clay with his arm, and boweth down his strength before his feet. He applieth himself to lead it over; and he is diligent to make clean the furnace. All these trust to their hands; and every one is wise in his work. Without these a city can not be inhabited; and they shall not dwell where they will, nor go up and down. They shall not be sought for in public council, nor sit high in the congregation. They shall not sit on the judges' seat, nor understand the sentence of judgment. They can not declare justice and judgment; and they shall not be found where parables are spoken" (Sirach 38: 24-33).

At the time when the son of Sirach wrote his book, Judah had been brought under the rule of Greece. The oriental world had, indeed, long since lost its primacy. A new civilization had arisen out of barbarism, and was acquiring the headship of the world. The center of historical interest gradually shifts from the eastern seaboard of the Mediterranean to the northern coasts of the Great Sea.

(1)-CRAIG, The Semitic Series, I (N. Y., 1899), Preface.

(2)-ERMAN, Life in Ancient Egypt (London, 1894. Tirard's trans.), p. 99f. Cf. pp. 80, 81.

(3)—BRUGSCH, History of Egypt (London, 1881. Smith's trans.), I, p. 28. Cf. MEYER, in Encyclopedia Biblica (N. Y., 1902), III, col. 3752. (4)-BAGEHOT, Physics and Politics, (N. Y., 1881), p. 25.

(5)-MASPERO, The Dawn of Civilization (London, 1896. McClure's trans.), pp. 52, 53 and note.

(6)-IDEM, chap. 4. Cf. p. 70.

(7)-RAWLINSON, History of Ancient Egypt (Boston, 1882), II, pp. 141, 142. Cf. ROGERS, History of Babylonia and Assyria (N. Y., 1901), II, pp. 278-280, 314.

(8)-LENORMANT, Ancient History (London, 1871), II, p. 353.
(9)-MASPERO, Dawn of Civ., p. 268.

(10)-IDEM, p. 300. Cf. SAYCE, Babylonians and Assyrians (N. Y., 1900), p. 175.

(11)-SAYCE, ibid., p. 67. Cf. p. 149. Cf. MASPERO, Dawn of Civ. pp. 742-745.

(12)—MUELLER, in Encyclopedia Biblica (N. Y., 1901), II, col. 1224. (13) RAWLINSON, History of Ancient Egypt, I, p. 493. Cf. WILKINSON, The Ancient Egyptians (Boston, 1883), I, pp. 38, 280, 284. Cf. ROGERS, History of Babylonia and Assyria, II, p. 280.

(14)—Cf. BruGSCH, History of Egypt, I, p. 403. Cf. ROGERS, History of Babylonia and Assyria, II, p. 224. Cf. ASHLEY, English Economic History (N. Y., 1894), I, pp. 70, 115 note 9. Cf. MOMMSEN, History of Rome (N. Y., Dickson's trans.), I, pp. 261, 262.

(15)—SAYCE, Babylonians and Assyrians, p. 173. Cf. p. 107.
(16)-RAWLINSON, History of Ancient Egypt, I, 496.
(17)-ERMAN, Life in Ancient Egypt, pp. 180-186.

(18) EWALD, History of Israel (London, 1867, Trans.), I, p. 294.
(19)-BRUGSCH, History of Egypt, I, p. 29.

(20)—IDEм, pp. 28, 29.

(21)-MASPERO, Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria (N. Y., 1899, Trans.), p. 9.

p. 29.

(22)-IDEM, p. 11.

(23)-IDEM, Dawn of Civ., p. 296. Cf. p. 290 for a case in point. (24)-SAYCE, Babylonians and Assyrians, p. 67.

(25)-W. R. SMITH, The Religion of the Semites (London, 1894),

(26)—SAYCE, Babylonians and Assyrians, p. 256.

(27)-MASPERO, Dawn of Civ., p. 303. Cf. ROGERS, History of Babylonia and Assyria, II, p. 133. Cf. SAYCE, Babylonians and Assyrians, p. 173.

(28)-ERMAN, Life in Ancient Egypt, pp. 80, 81. Cf. p. 99.
(29)-MASPERO, Dawn of Civ., p. 679.

(30)-KING, in Encyclopedia Biblica (N. Y., 1899), I, col. 433. (31)-ROGERS, History of Babylonia and Assyria, II, pp. 278, 279. (32)-SAYCE, Babylonians and Assyrians, pp. 228, 229. On oriental education, cf. LAURIE, Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education (London, 1900), pp. 38-48, 57-61.

(33)-RENAN, History of the People of Israel (Boston), II, p. 225. (34) Cf. McCURDY, History, Prophecy, and the Monuments (N. Y., 1896), I, chap. 2. Cf. BARTON, Semitic Origins (N. Y., 1902), pp. 1-29, 270. Cf. KENT, History of the Hebrew People (N. Y. 1899), I, chap. 5.

(35)-CORNIL, The Prophets of Israel (Chicago, 1897), p. 3f. Cf. DRIVER, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (N. Y., 1892), pp. 2-4.

(36)—Journal of the Anthropological Institute, XI, pp. 364, 365. Cited by SPENCER, Principles of Sociology (N. Y., 1895), I, p. 774. Cf. SULLY, Studies of Childhood (N. Y., 1896), p. 103f. Cf. LARCOM, A New England Girlhood (Boston, 1891), p. 137.

(37)-MOMMSEN, History of Rome, I, pp. 213, 214. Cf. REVILLE, Native Religions of Mexico and Peru (London, 1895),

p. 77.

(38)-W. R. SMITH, The Religion of the Semites (London, 1894), pp. 29, 30. Cf. MCCURDY, History, Prophecy, etc., (N. Y., 1897), II, p. 133. (39)-ALLEN, Evolution of the Idea of God (N. Y., 1897), pp. 80,

81, 82.

(40)-DRIVER, in Encyclopedia Biblica (N. Y., 1902), III, article

"Mesha."

p. 23.

(41)-WELLHAUSEN, History of Israel and Judah (London, 1891),

(42) W. R. SMITH, The Prophets of Israel (London, 1897), p. 379. (43) Cf. BUDDE, The Religion of Israel to the Exile (N. Y., 1899), chap. 1, and passim. Cf. BARTON, Semitic Origins (N. Y., 1902), chap. 7. We are greatly indebted to the excellent treatise of BUDDE.

(44)—Cf. W. R. SMITH, The Religion of the Semites (London, 1894), p. 372. Cf. KUENEN, The Religion of Israel (London, 1882, May's trans.), I, pp. 236f., 250.

(45)—Cf. W. R. SMITH, Rel. of Semites, pp. 3, 4. Cf. WELLHAUSEN, History of Israel, etc., (London 1891), p. 16. Cf. KENT, History of the Hebrew People (N. Y., 1899), I, pp. 41, 97, 201; II, p. 97. Cf. MURISON, Totemism in the Old Testament (Biblical World, Chicago, Sept. 1901).

(46)-PATON, Early History of Syria and Palestine (N. Y., 1901), pp. 1-103. MCCURDY, History, Prophecy, etc., I, p. 163f.; II, p. 5f. WELLHAUSEN, History of Israel, etc., p. 31.

(47) Cf. BUDDE, The Religion of Israel to the Exile, chap. 2.

(48)-WELLHAUSEN, History of Israel, etc., p. 35. Cf. W. R. SMITH, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (N. Y., 1891), p. 269. MCCURDY, History, Prophecy, etc., I, p 228; II, p. 6.

(49)-WELLHAUSEN, History of Israel, etc., p. 8. Cf. CORNIL, His

tory of the People of Israel (Chicago, 1899), p. 48.

p. 245.

(50)-GREEN, History of the English People, Bk. 3, chap. 1.
(51)—SAYCE, Babylonians and Assyrians, p. 256.

(52)—FISKE, The Beginnings of New England (Boston, 1900),

(53)-BRUCE, Apologetics (N. Y., 1899), p. 280.

(54)-PATON, Early History of Syria and Palestine, p. 227. Cf. W. R. SMITH, The Prophets of Israel, pp. 88, 89.

(55)—G. A. SMITH, The Book of the Twelve Prophets (N. Y., 1898), I, p. 377.

(56)-KIRKPATRICK, The Doctrine of the Prophets (London, 1901), pp. 225, 226.

(57)-Hartford Seminary Notes (Hartford, Conn.), IV, p. 126. (58) Cf. Toy, Judaism and Christianity (Boston, 1892), p. 77f. Cf. W. R. SMITH, The Prophets of Israel (London, 1897), p. 59f. BRUCE, Apologetics, p. 176f.

Cf.

(59)-DUNCKER, History of Greece (London, 1886. Alleyne and

Abbott's trans.), II, p. 228.

(60)-G. A. SMITH, The Book of Isaiah (N. Y., 1900), II, p. 57f. (61)-IDEM, ibid.

CHAPTER VI.

CLASSIC CIVILIZATION.

§ 115. The social development of classic civilization began on the same level as did that of the oriental world. In the background of the history of Greece and Italy, as in that of the ancient east, is the shifting scene of tribal migration and war. A passage relating to the early ages of Greece, written by the Greek historian Thucydides in the fifth century B. C., is worth reproducing in this connection for its general suggestiveness:

"The country was not regularly settled in ancient times. The people were migratory, and readily left their homes whenever they were overpowered by numbers. There was no commerce, and they could not safely hold intercourse with one another either by land or sea. The several tribes cultivated their own soil just enough to obtain a maintenance from it. But they had no accumulations of wealth. for being without walls, they were never sure that an invader might not come and despoil them. Living in this manner they were always ready to migrate; so that they had neither great cities nor any considerable resources" (1).

§ 116. Modern archaeological research proves that there was a prehistoric civilization located on the north Mediterranean coasts prior to the appearance of the Greeks and Romans. Probably these early communities were not wholly swept away. Their people were doubtless partly exterminated and partly subjugated by the tribes that came pouring down from central and eastern Europe to found the Greek and Roman communities of historic times (2).

The earliest historic societies in these regions exhibit cleavage into upper and lower strata. In both Greece and Italy the upper social stratum was originally composed of the clan aristocracy, which constituted a slaveholding, landowning class. This class was the legal element in the State; and it controlled the policies of government. Thus we see that the societies destined to compose the classic civilization began politically on the same level as the oriental world (3).

In society as thus constituted it signifies nothing to the principle of cleavage-capitalization whether government assumes the monarchial or the republican form. Political moralists cannot extract lessons from the experiences of Greek and Roman republics in which the "people" cast out their kings, and replaced them by frequently elected officers. For the people in these cases were like the people in, say, ancient Israel. That is, they were not the people in the modern sense, but merely the upper classes. The establishment of an ancient republic was far from being a democratic event in the modern sense. Indeed, such a procedure might rivet more firmly the power of the nobility by unseating a king who was disposed to remedy the worst abuses of class rule, and substituting an official whose tenure depended upon the good will of an upperclass electorate (4).

§ 117.- No settled community long exists without the exchange of labor products. The social history of Greece and Italy was early marked by the rise of domestic and foreign trade, and the establishment of towns and cities. This may perhaps, to some extent, be regarded as a revival of the prehistoric commerce of those countries.

§ 118.- Just as in the Orient, so here, commerce was primarily the exchange of lower-class products among the upper orders.

At first the tendency was for commerce to remain in the hands, or under the proprietary control, of the nobility. It was doubtless to some extent personally managed by the nobility at first, but more and more by slave-stew