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sils, and thence to metal implements. This material is now represented by many public and private collections, and a large body of literature.

It is certain that the prehistoric career of humanity extended over a much longer stretch of time than the period embraced within the few thousand years of written history. Nevertheless, progress during prehistoric ages was so slow, and general conditions were necessarily so simple, that the essentials of the story of man before his appearance in the field of history are easily recovered and briefly told. It is the later and more complex periods, whereof we possess written record, that demand the closer attention, and are more difficult to understand and explain. We are, it is true, disposed to think that the reverse of this must be the case. At first thought, it seems as if the prehistoric period, of which there is no written record, would present greater difficulties to the student than the age of written history. But in a very important sense, as just observed, this is not so. The growth of society, like the growth of a plant or an animal, is from the relatively simple to the relatively complex; and life in prehistoric times was of necessity very simple as compared with life now. The results of the modern deductive and inductive reconstruction of early human life and progress are marvelous.

The knowledge derived from the study of prehistoric remains is widened and deepened by a comparative examination of the lower races now living in the world. These races are not the degenerates of a high civilization. They are simply wayside survivors from prehistoric times, having made various degrees of progress, and then stopped or slightly retrograded; and a study of their customs, industries, languages, and traditions is of great importance to the social student. We now have at our disposal an immense mass of information relating to the more backward races in all parts of the world. This material would justly be open to suspicion if it were more limited in quantity and of merely local scope. But it is of great extent,

and has been accumulated by the independent observations of thousands of travelers and missionaries in all parts of the world; and a comparative study of it reveals the operation of the same tendencies everywhere.

For study of the historical period we have written records, which carry the view forward from ancient to modern times. These records are of the most diverse character, from inscriptions on stone or metal, giving some detail of local import, to written and printed dissertations with a broad outlook over large areas of life. tative historical works like Mommsen's —

All authoriHistory of Rome, and Green's History of the English are based on a critical sifting of these primary sources.

The social process as it goes on around us at present can be viewed practically at first hand in its whole extent.

The importance of each class of our material consists not only in its inherent value, but in its relations to other kinds of material. Each class throws light on every other class; and the total value of all the material at our disposal is much greater than the sum of the values of each particular class.

Altogether, the available sources enable us to recover the facts of social development in a fairly satisfactory way not so fully as we would, but with sufficient certainty to afford a safe basis for the interpretation of essential facts and principles.

§ 4. At first glance there seems to be no justification for speaking in a general way about the "development of society." Whether the outlook be upon the present or the past, the field seems to be divided between separate social groups rather than occupied by anything that merits comprehensive treatment. But a closer view reveals a well defined growth-process working out through universal history.

In order to give our thought graphic points of attachment, let us use a map of the world on Mercator projection. (See map accompanying text). At the right are Europe, Asia, and Africa. At the left, North and South

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America. Here we have an outline of the great stage whereon the drama of social development unfolds itself. Now, prehistoric remains indicate that a limited measure of progress was made in early ages throughout the entire world.

But while there has been a limited measure of progress everywhere, the higher development of mankind has been worked out by a relatively small part of the race. This higher evolution has been accomplished by three great historic civilizations, or circles of communities.

The earliest of these to emerge from the darkness of prehistoric times into the daylight of history was the ancient oriental civilization. (See map). This great circle of communities was located near the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean sea, and included the Egyptians, Babylonians, Phenicians, Assyrians, Israelites, etc. Oriental civilization contributed much to the development of society; but it carried forward the work of progress only a relatively short distance, and then as if the task were too heavy went into stagnation.

Oriental achievements, however, were not lost. Another group of peoples now came into the light of history, absorbed the culture of the older circle of communities, and assumed the leadership of progress. This group included the races of Greece and Italy. It was located in the northern Mediterranean lands; and is known collectively as the classic civilization. (See map). Its contributions to the growth of society were great; but it also at length fell into stagnation.

And now a third circle of communities emerged from the darkness of prehistoric beginnings. Arising out of barbarism and savagery, as did the classic and oriental nations, these latter communities have expanded in central and western Europe, and overflowed into America and other lands. The largest and most important of the states constructed out of them are Germany, France, England, and the United States. These nations constitute the center of western civilization. (See map). Successors to

the task of the oriental and classic civilizations, and heirs of their achievements, the nations of the west are in the forefront of human progress.

Thus there come gradually into view the gigantic outlines of an evolution which has no local boundaries, and ever tends to include the world. In studying universal history, then, we must

Firstconceive of the entire prehistoric world as making various degrees of progress from animality. And we must

Second picture the majority of the races of mankind as halting at various way-stations along the path of social growth, taking up, as it were, a waiting attitude, while

Third the more progressive minority embraced in the oriental, classic, and western civilizations vicariously works out that economic, political, and intellectual culture which is today being generalized over the earth.

From this preliminary survey we pass on to a closer study of the field here marked out. Our inquiry will at first have to do with the prehistoric world in general. Then, after stating our main thesis, we shall narrow the scope of our survey to the first great historic civilization -the oriental, passing thence through the classic world, and thence onward into our own western society.

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