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The vast and various capital around us in modern society, then, has been produced by the aid of earlier capital, which, in turn, rested back upon still earlier, and so on. Broadly speaking, capital has developed along with the evolution of society. Let us here confine ourselves, for the sake of simplicity, to its material forms. Having been reserved out of labor products, thrown over from generation to generation, and renewed and added to, capital has at length across the flight of time and the mutations of mortality — accumulated into that vast industrial plant which is employed today in working up the earth's resources into the form of consumable goods.

Now, according to the present thesis, the principal agency whereby this industrial outfit has become a concrete fact in society is to be found in social cleavage, based at first on personal slavery and serfdom which, in modern times, have been commuted into competitive land rents.

This vast collective process, continually piling up a greater and greater mass of social capital, has gone forward under the forms of individualism; and, moreover, the psychology of society is still individualistic. Persons who possess wealth, whether in small or in large amounts, think and speak about their own and other people's wealth in the individualistic way. We say, "There is a man who began life with little or nothing. But by industry and economy he has accumulated fifty millions;" and we thoughtlessly accept this account as the whole and exact truth. But there is no individual fortune in civilization which is not practically social in its origin and which does not derive significance more from society than from the person identified with it. The history of individual fortunes can be expressed by an almost unvarying general formula which involves the proposition of cleavage. "The rich man," says Frederick Harrison (and he could as well have said the small property holder), "is simply the man who has managed to put himself at the end of a long chain, or into the center of an intricate convolu

tion, and whom society and law suffer to retain the joint product conditionally” (70).

Our inquiry could fitly be brought to a period at this point. But the disturbances now agitating society are such that we can hardly close without a word in regard to the bearing of social cleavage upon present conditions. We have seen that the oriental and classic civilizations, after emerging upon the stage of history, developed a social problem which grew out of the great fact of cleavage; and, unless we are mistaken, western society is reproducing the conditions of its predecessors in this respect. It will hardly be disputed that cleavage has an important bearing of some kind upon the present social problem; and our idea of its relation to contemporary questions is briefly indicated in the following chapter.

(1)—STRABO, in Schrader's Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryans (London, 1890. Jevons' trans.), p. 281.

(2)-GROSS, Sources and Literature of English History (London, 1900), p. 55. Cf. CUNNINGHAM, Growth of English Industry and Commerce (Cambridge, 1896), I, pp. 26, 27.

(3) HOLMES, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (London, 1899), pp. 12, 13. TACITUS, Germania, chap. 25. Cf. STUBBS, Constitutional History of England (Oxford, 1875), sec. 14.

(4)-HALLAM, Europe in the Middle Ages, Chap. 7. Cf. MOTLEY, Rise of the Dutch Republic, Introduction, sec. 5. Cf. BLOK, History of the People of the Netherlands (N. Y., 1898. Bierstadt and Putnam's trans.), I, p. 170f. Cf. HENDERSON, Germany in the Middle Ages (LonDON, 1894), pp. 34, 135. Cf. TUTTLE, History of Prussia (Boston, 1884), pp. 26, 58.

(5)-KEMBLE, The Saxons in England (London, 1876), II, p. 358. Cf. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (any ed.), item "Anno 657."

(6) PEARSON, History of England (London, 1867), I, p. 383. (7)-GNEIST, History of the English Constitution (N. Y., 1886. Ashworth's trans.), II, p. 155. Cf. PEARSON, History of England, I, pp. 314, 635. Cf. PUTNAM, Books and Their Makers in the Middle Ages (N. Y., 1899), Preface. Cf. MACAULAY, History of England, chap 3.

(8)-VINOGRADOFF, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892), p. 178. Cf. POLLOCK AND MAITLAND, History of English Law (Cambridge, 1895), p. 38.

I,

(9)-On the English lower class, Cf. SEEBOHM, The English Village Community (London, 1884), pp. 89-97. POLLOCK AND MAITLAND, History of English Law, I, pp. 11-13, 395-416. KEMBLE, The Saxons in England, I, pp. 185-225. MAITLAND, Domesday Book and Beyond (Cambridge, 1897), pp. 26-66. STUBBS, Constitutional History of England, sec. 132. Same in France and Germany: MOMBERT, Charles the Great (N. Y., 1888), pp. 64, 65.

ix.

(10)-VINOGRADOFF, Villainage in England, p. 57.

(11)-BEDE, Ecclesiastical History of England (London, Giles' ed.),

(12)-PAULI, Life of Alfred (London, 1878), p. 227.

(13)-JANSSEN, History of the German People (St. Louis. Mitchell and Christie's trans.), II, pp. 1-3.

(14)-LAPSLEY, in English Historical Review, XIV, p. 515. (15)-STUBBS, Constitutional History of England (Oxford, 1878), III, p. 610.

(16)-ROGERS, History of English Agriculture and Prices (Oxford, 1866), I, pp. 160, 161. Cf. TURNER, History of the Anglo-Saxons (London, 1828), III, p 83. STUBBS, Constitutional History, III, pp. 606, 607. GNEIST, History of the English Constitution, II, pp. 105, 106.

(17)-HALLAM, Europe in the Middle Ages, chap. 9. ADAMS, Civilization During the Middle Ages (N. Y., 1894), pp. 279, 280. (18)-TURNER, History of the Anglo-Saxons, III, p. 115. (19)-ASHLEY, English Economic History (N. Y., 1894), I, p. 115. (20)-SEEBOHM, The English Village Community, pp. 82, 83. PEARSON, History of England, I, Appendix C.

(21)

KNIGHT, History of England (N. Y., Lovell), pp. 441, 442. (22) Cf. BOURNE, English Merchants (London, 1866), pp. 65-68. GRUBE, Heroes of History and Legend (London, 1880), chap. 13. GIBBINS, Industry in England (London, 1896), p. 138. STUBBS, Select Charters (1884), p 65. IDEM, Constitutional History of England, III, pp. 595, 596.

P. 417.

(23) ASHLEY, English Economic History (N. Y., 1894), I,
p. 97.
(24)—HENDERSON, Germany in the Middle Age (London, 1894),

(25)-GREEN, Town Life in the Fifteenth Century (London, 1894), chaps. 7, 8, 9. STUBBS, Constitutional History, I, pp. 425, 426.

(26) Cf. JANSSEN, History of the German People, II, pp. 1-3. TURNER, History of the Anglo-Saxons, III, p. 105. HALLAM, Europe in the Middle Ages, chap. 9 TRAILL, Social England (N. Y., 1898), I, p. 207. ASHLEY, English Economic History (N. Y., 1898), II, p. 219. (27)-GROSS, The Gild Merchant (Oxford, 1890), I, pp. 5-8. Cf. TRAILL, Social England (N. Y., 1897), II, pp. 109, 265, 556.

(28)-GROSS, The Gild Merchant, I, p. 107.

(29) Cf. GREEN, Town Life in the Fifteenth Century, I, pp. 53, 54.

(30)-POLLOCK AND MAITLAND, History of English Law, I, p. 633. VINOGRADOFF, Villainage in England, p. 86.

(31)—Cf. TRAILL, Social England, II, p. 111.

(32)-GREEN, Town Life, I, pp. 53, 54.

(33)-ROGERS, Six Centuries of Work and Wages (N. Y., Putnams), p. 338. ASHLEY English Economic History, II, p. 100. TRAILL, Social England, II, 556.

(34)-ROGERS, English Agric. and Prices, I, p. 530.

(35)-IDEM, Work and Wages, p. 338. GREEN, Town Life, II,
(36)-Gross, The Gild Merchant, I, p. 116.

p. 66f. (37)—VINOGRADOFF, Villainage, pp. 178, 291, 306. Cf. Eng. Hist. Review, XV, The Disappearance of English Serfdom.

(38) Cf. GROSS, The Gild Merchant, I, p. 51. ROGERS, Work and Wages, pp. 339, 340. IDEM, Agric. and Prices, IV, pp. 106-109. CUNNINGHAM, English Industry, etc., I, pp. 440, 453. TRAILL, Social England (N. Y., 1898), III, p 121. ASHLEY, Eng. Econ. Hist., II, 169.

(39)—CUNNINGHAM, English Industry, I, p. 506f. ASHLEY, Eng. Econ. Hist., I, p. 92. IDEM, The English Woolen Industry (American Economic Asso., 1887), pp. 45-53, 75-84. Cf. Eng. Hist. Review, XII, p. 437f.

(40)-GREEN, Town Life, II, chap. 4. WEBB, History of Trade Unionism (London, 1894), p. 37, note.

(41)—ASHLEY, Eng. Econ. Hist., I, p. 103. Cf. Eng. Hist. Review, V, p. 652. GROSS, The Gild Merchant, I, p. 125. GREEN, Short History of the English People, Book 4, sec. 4. IDEM, History of the English People, Book 5, chap. 1. Guizor, Civilization in Europe, Lect. 13. TRAILL, Social England, II, pp. 397, 407.

(42)-ROGERS, Work and Wages, p. 360. Cf. ADAMS, Civilization and Decay (N. Y., 1897), chap. 7.

(43)—TREVELYAN, England in the Age of Wikliffe (London, 1899),

p. 170.

(44)-WIKLIFFE, Select English Works (Oxford, 1869-1871. Arnold's ed.), III, pp. 216, 217.

ར..

(45)—BLACKSTONE, Commentaries on the Laws of England (N. 1890. Chase's ed.), p. 423. Cf. FROUDE, History of England (N. Y., 1873), I, p. 328f. BAIRD, Rise of the Huguenots of France (N. Y.), I, p. 61f.

(46)-MOTLEY, Rise of the Dutch Republic (Phila., McKay), I, p. 77. (47)-IDEM, p. 272.

(48)-GREEN, Hist. of the Eng. People, Book 6, chap. 1.

(49)-IDEM, Book 6, chap. 5.

(50)-IDEM, Book 7, chap. 2.

(51)-BAGEHOT, The English Constitution (N. Y., 1890), pp. 19,

20. Cf. SEIGNOBOS, The Political History of Europe Since 1814 (N. Y., 1900. Macvane's ed.), pp. 19, 20.

(52)—MACAULAY, Miscellanies, on Nugent's Hampden, pars. 107, 108. Cf. HALLAM, Constitutional History of England (N. Y., 1880), I, pp. 597, 610.

(53)-LECKY, England in the Eighteenth Century (N. Y., 1888), I, p. 203.

(54)-GARDINER, History of England (London, 1884), IX, p. 158.
(55)—LATIMER, First Sermon Before Edward VI (Parker Soc.).
(56)—GREEN, History of the English People, Book 5, chap. 1.
(57)-LATIMER, First Sermon, etc.

(58)

See the conservative estimate of the cost of Columbus' first voyage in FISKE, The Discovery of America (Boston, 1896), I, pp. 418, 419.

(59) Cf. FISKE, The Beginnings of New England (Boston, 1900), p. 80. Cf. BRADFORD, History of Plimouth Plantation (Mass. State ed., Boston).

(60) Cf. on American social cleavage, the following: EGGLESTON, The Transit of Civilization (N. Y., 1901), p. 294f. FISHER, The Colonial Era (N. Y., 1897), pp. 61, 75, 109, 159, 253, 254. MCCRADY, South Carolina Under the Proprietary Government (N. Y., 1897), p. 477f. IDEM, South Carolina Under the Royal Government (N. Y., 1901), pp. 143f, 399f. MERENESS, Maryland as a Proprietary Province (N. Y., 1901), chap. 5. BROWNE, Maryland (Boston, 1884), pp. 179-183. WEEDEN, Economic and Social History of New England (Boston, 1890), I, pp. 84, 85, 99, 149, 400; II, 449, 520, 763, .834. BRUCE, Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century (N. Y., 1896), I, p. 572; II, pp. 1f, 57f. MCMASTER, History of the People of the United States (N. Y., 1900), V, chaps. 43 and 44.

(61)-LECKY, England in the Eighteenth Century (N. Y., 1888), I, p. 209. Cf. HARRISON, Description of England, Book 3, chap. 4. (62)-MACAULAY, History of England, chap. 19. Cf. TRAILL, Social England, IV, pp. 115, 116.

(63)-LECKY, England in the Eighteenth Century (N. Y., 1887), VI, p 216.

(64)-TRAILL, Social England (N. Y., 1899), V. pp. 461-463. Cf. SMILES, Lives of the Engineers, chap. 8.

(65)-GREEN, History of the English People, Book 9, chap. 3. (66)-TRAILL, Social England, V, p. 323.

(67) GREEN, as above. Cf. The Dictionary of National Biography (English), under the names "Watt," "Brindley," "Bridgewater," "Roebuck," etc., etc., for important material relative to social cleavage. One who can read between the lines will find this Dictionary a mine of suggestion. The general sociological value of biography does not seem to be fully appreciated as yet.

(68)-KIDD, Social Evolution (N. Y., 1895), p. 286.
(69)-Contemporary Review, July, 1890.
(70)-Forum, Dec., 1893.

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