diaphragm, — the fleshy partition between the cavities of the chest and abdomen. We have described the diaphragm, under the "Organs of Respiration," and of its importance in phonetic expiration we shall shortly have more to say. We can, therefore, breathe at will either with the ribs or the diaphragm; and hence we have chest-breathing and abdominal breathing.

Neither of these movements entirely excludes the other; they are rather both present at the same time, but usually one predominates.

In deep, abdominal respiration, the entire trunk bends backward; the abdomen protrudes through the agency of the diaphragm, the lower ribs expand and are pushed forward, the upper ones backward.

If

In chest-breathing we distinguish two kinds: the upper ribs are especially drawn up, we have the so-called shoulder or collar-bone breathing, in which the shoulders, and principally the shoulder-blades, are very perceptibly raised; the collar-bones and the ribs naturally accompany them directly upward ; the walls of the abdomen at such times press the intestines together and backward; the abdomen, especially the epigastrium, recedes. The whole trunk becomes elongated; hence the lungs, and especially their tips, are lengthened and expanded.

If, however, the lower ribs are especially drawn outward, so-called rib or side-breathing results, by which the chest, above all, increases in breadth. The whole trunk bends more or less forward; the abdomen recedes so that its fore arch, especially the region of the stomach, is drawn flat and even inward.

SECTION 2.

THREE MAIN MODES OF TAKING BREATH.

We have, then, three main kinds of respiratory

movements:

1. Abdominal or diaphragmatic breathing. 2. Shoulder or collar-bone breathing, and 3. Side or rib-breathing.

In abdominal or diaphragmatic respiration there is complete expansion of the lungs. In the two other modes of respiration this expansion is incomplete or partial; since in the one (collar-bone breathing) the upper, in the other (rib-breathing) the middle region is affected.

Since the appearance of the first edition of this work, in which for the first time, in a popular scientific treatise, diaphragmatic breathing was taught and designated as the only true method of breathing, the author has heard a great deal of talk about the diaphragm. Wherever tone-formation was discussed the subject of diaphragmatic breathing has been brought up. The writer, however, has had very frequently to hear complaints from pupils, who had gone through a long course of instruction at the hands of singing teachers, that while their teachers had insisted upon their breathing with the diaphragm, the way to do this had not been taught them. Many of them have even

declared that when they did breathe in the way in which they had been instructed, the least quantity of air was introduced into the lungs. From this it is evident that both teachers and pupils have had a wrong conception of the nature of diaphragmatic or abdominal breathing, and have practiced it falsely, having mistaken for it the simple and feeble contraction of the diaphragm which takes place in sleep as well as in a state of perfect repose, and which almost of itself alone (but not altogether alone) keeps up the respiration at such times. They have made the mistake of supposing that this purely diaphragmatic breathing was meant. But this is altogether an error. Of the two kinds of respiratory movements termed diaphragmatic and ribbreathing, neither, it is firmly settled, excludes the other entirely; they are, on the contrary, always associated, but usually in such a way that one or the other predominates. During the activity of the diaphragm, in sleep or in perfect repose, the lower seven or eight ribs remain almost inactive; but in a state of wakefulness and bodily exertion there is the full abdominal respiration; that is to say, the full activity of the diaphragm combined with rib or side-breathing to a certain extent; this latter consisting in the raising upward and outward of the lower seven or eight ribs to one-half or three-fourths of the utmost possible limit. The raising of the lower seven or eight ribs is an essential condition of the full activity of the diaphragm, of which they form the frame, inasmuch as its fibres are attached to the ribs and can contract effectually only when these are forced upward and outward and held firm in that position. There can be no such thing, therefore, as perfect diaphragmatic or abdominal respiration unless this condition is present. It is in the correct diaphragmatic respiration, and not by the exclusive activity of the diaphragm, that the greatest quantity of air is admitted into the lungs. We may, indeed, cause the principal respiratory movements to take place each by itself alone, thus producing a forced action, but in this case an unsatisfactory result is obtained. As long as we allow nature to act unhindered, a forced action cannot take place. It is in the combination of the respiratory movements that the free action of nature appears, and according to the muscles mainly involved we designate each kind of respiratory movement.

Shoulder-breathing is found mostly in women; side and especially abdominal breathing among men.

Without entering upon the old dispute of physiologists, as to whether women naturally breathe clavicularly, or whether the disadvantageous manner of dressing is the cause, we here contend that women should make the same respiratory movements in the

art of song and speech as men. (See Chapter II, Section 7.)

While, then, inspiration takes place by means of the muscles of inspiration, and so becomes an active process, expiration takes place during ordinary respiration, less by means of the muscles than through the return of the previously expanded parts to their original state, resulting from their elasticity,—usually a purely passive process.

This is, however, the case only in so far as expiration promotes animal life; i. e., as long as it is involuntary; as soon as it becomes voluntary, and is used to remove foreign substances that impede respiration, or is made the agency of voice and speech, then several groups of muscles are brought into activity, because the simple expiratory pressure is too weak to accomplish the desired end, and expiration, too, becomes an active process.

The activity of the muscles which now steps in, has two duties to perform: first, to support and strengthen expiration; secondly, to retard and check it.

The first is done by the abdominal muscles which draw down the ribs, compress the abdomen, and so, while pressing the intestines and the diaphragm upward, narrow the cavity of the chest from below also.

The second is accomplished mainly by the diaphragm, whose chief function is to regulate the voluntary retardation, to counteract the pressure of the intestines when forced upward by the abdominal muscles. (See Chapter II, Section 9.)

In inspiration the glottis widens, in expiration it contracts, in order to make the expirations slower. This is the case with all the air-passages, because they are elastic.

In strong, quick inspiration the larynx sinks slightly; in expiration it resumes its original position.

It is in our power to use either one of the groups of the respiratory muscles. If, however, we permanently prevent an expansion of the lower ribs by a too great narrowing of the waist, the natural consequence will be that these parts will finally lose entirely the ability to expand, and, therefore, the diaphragm will be unable to take any part in phonetic expiration.

After having learned how man breathes instinctively, we shall now show how it is necessary to breathe in singing and speaking.