successful. It would seem that Socrates has the credit of being the first to insist on this point." 1

Breadth and accuracy of scholarship besides professional training are absolutely essential to success. Even the "born teacher" must secure these or frequently be indictable for gross maladministration in office. It is a grand endowment to possess those qualities we ascribe to the born teacher-vivacity, quick insight, geniality, patience, justice, attractive personality, transparent honesty and uprightness, leadership, and all the others that could be mentioned; but without scholarship and professional training even the one superlatively blessed is unprepared for the high office of teacher-the grandiloquent platform orator to the contrary notwithstanding. Even with ample scholarship added, a great handicap remains and unpardonable blunders are inevitable unless the teacher begins under the wisest supervision. The trained teacher knows what instruction has preceded in the courses and what is to follow; he recognizes the varying stages of mental development and what will best minister to them; he is conversant with other subjects than his own, has studied out their relationships and thereby has gained perspective; he knows the laws for promoting the best mental action, and considers the demands which society will place upon the child.

Superintendent Cooley, of Chicago, said: "I think that the lower grade in the high school needs teachers who can teach the pupils as well as the subjects. . . . More teachers are trying to bring university methods into the high school than there are making such mistakes in the grades below." Superintendent Soldan, of St. Louis, said in the same discussion: "The very first step in the readjustment of the high school is to show at least one book by high-school teachers that embodies the high-school method. It is strange that the books for the common-school teachers are without equivalents in the high schools. Let them follow the example of the common-school teachers in mastering the subjects and also in mastering the pedagogics of the subjects. Stout, Analytic Psychology, II, p. 137.

1

The pupils enter the high school as children. Their work in the first year, and often in the second year, is done after the ways of children, but by the time they leave the high schools they are adults in many respects. That important transition from childhood to adolescence has not been considered, so far as I know, by any high-school teacher. The course of study should be adjusted according to the principles of wise pedagogics. The common-school teacher has gone beyond the mere knowledge of the subject he is to teach; he has gone to the thoughtful consideration of how these subjects should be taught to have the fullest educational influence over the children under his control."

The whole work of the trained teacher contributes to the development of the pupil through utilizing all the means and instruments available. While the untrained teacher may by happy fortune contribute to one phase of development by using limited means, his efforts are liable to miscarry entirely because of untimeliness or bad methods, or he may warp the mind because of undue emphasis of the subject which he represents. Superintendent Cooley has said that the first-year class in the high school is the worst taught class in the whole system of schools. This, he says, is true because of the inexperience of the teachers, who are largely just out of college. They teach as they have been taught by methods well enough adapted to colleges, but entirely out of place in the high school. They exalt the subject and lose sight of the learners. They ma gnify their particular subject all out of proportion to its rights. It is well known that in colleges, and in high schools where the department system prevails, each instructor is apt to assign enough to occupy the whole time of the student. This is not an indictment of the college, but of the system which permits the employment of teachers without professional training. But most important of all, how can we expect immature, untrained teachers to assist much in developing in pupils a keen sense of duty and responsi bility toward society when the teachers have had such limited

1 1 Proc. N. E. A., 1903, p. 184.

contact with it themselves? The teachers should have become broad-minded through varied contact with society and should be keenly alive to the best means of fostering the highest ideals in the youth.

CHAPTER XXI

MOTOR EXPRESSION IN RELATION TO EDUCATION

Expression an Index to Mind.-The only means we have of studying the mind of another is through his various expressions. Mind discloses itself to others only by expression as in talking, writing, drawing, painting, constructing machines or controlling them, etc. Efficiency of mind is judged wholly by the outward expression revealed to the view of the world. A student's knowledge of mathematics or psychology must be judged by what he says or writes; one's knowledge of art by what he can produce. We do not really know whether another can sing or play the piano until he manifests it in expression. A poetic soul is unknown until it bursts into song; an author's ability to write may properly be challenged until he gives an actual demonstration. Similarly an engineer must exhibit his skill, an architect his plan, a general his generalship, a statesman his statecraft, in some objective results. In fact, we know nothing of the perceptions, memories, emotions, reasonings, choosings, willings, hopes, joys, and sorrows, of others except as they give expression to them through some muscular activity. Another may love us ever so tenderly or hate us ever so bitterly, but unless we detect some of his outward expressions of it we are entirely oblivious of the fact. To illustrate, a man is angry. How do others know it? Solely by his expression. He may clench his fist, knit his brows, gnash his teeth, raise his arm to strike, utter an oath in a major key, if he believes himself stronger than his foe; if inferior he may whisper in impotent rage and skulk away because incapable of defence or retaliation. Another angry man might express himself in a more indirect, but not less effective manner by calling the police, waylaying his enemy,

going to war, writing articles of denunciation which would bring social reprobation upon his enemy, or waging a war of ballots which would express indignation and tend to secure retribution and reform. The enemy might be an individual or a violation of principle. Again, consider the various manifestations of fear. The child may run with breathless haste, eyes dilated, tears streaming, heart palpitating, face flushed, or it may be blanched and palsied. A mother immersed in grief over the loss of her loved little ones may be hysterical, or speak with voice trembling, quivering lips, have a pallid countenance, and be depressed almost to complete paralysis. In any case, the emotions are expressed in some form of action, sometimes decidedly external; in others more internal, repressed, and perhaps much diffused, but the only means we have of understanding them is through some form of motor expression.

Dr. Warner, a noted London physician, has written an entire volume on Physical Expression, which is of exceeding interest. The following quotation is to the point in connection with the foregoing thesis: "In the adult the objective criteria of mind are modes of expression; the expressions of the emotions, feelings, passions, thoughts are indications of the mind; and all these modes of expression have been shown to be produced by direct action of the nervous system. It is, then, admitted that conditions of the mind are directly expressed by nerve-muscular signs. This implies that some material, physical change occurs along with 'mentation,' which material change is expressed in the muscles of the body. It is this inherent physical change, thus directly expressed, which the physiologist investigates in his studies of mind." 1

James says: "The brain, so far as we understand it, is given us for practical behavior. Every current that runs into it from skin or eye or ear runs out again into muscles, glands, or viscera, and helps to adapt the animal to the environment from which the current came. It therefore generalizes and simplifies our view to treat the brain life and the mental life as having one funda'Physical Expression, p. 252. 2 Talks to Teachers, p. 26.