are c

demagogues; in power, they become exclusive oligarchs. In the one case and the other, they pursue without scruple what they believe to be their party interest.

ART. II.-The Constitution of Man considered in Relation to External Objects. By GEORGE COMBE. Edinburgh, 1851.

"That the Whigs, as a party, sought more than their own party advantage, [in carrying the Re-THE work which we have placed at the form Bill, I see no reason to believe. That they head of this Article has by name, at least, both overrated and underrated the effects of been long familiar to the public. We say their own measure, their subsequent conduct, I by name, not because its actual circulation think, proves. They overrated it, in supposing has been small, but because we believe that that they had really annihilated the political the number of those who have read it, is at power of their opponents, and firmly establishleast small when compared with the number ed their own supremacy; they overrated it also, in fancying that they had given a dangerous of those who have as decided an opinion of power to what they called alternately a repub- its character as if they had. It is often relican and a democratic party. They underrated ferred to as belonging to a set of works the effect of the new Act, and mistook its infiu- usually to be found on the shelves of the ence altogether, when they supposed that the chartist and the infidel: and under this gencoming contests in the House of Commons were eral impression it is avoided by a large class to be between themselves-representing monar- of readers. This is hardly a safe state of chy, aristocracy, wealth and order, on the one hand, and a small but fierce and active body of republicans and anarchists on the other."Vol. ii. c. v.

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matters in connexion with such a book. It has passed through seven or eight editions, and boasts of a circulation of some 90,000. If, therefore, it be true, as a matter of fact, Now, there is unquestionably much truth that it is often associated with very doubtat the bottom of these representations; but ful company, the characteristics which make it is a truth exaggerated and embittered. it acceptable there must be an important The Whigs have always been, it is true, an subject of inquiry. Is it from any direct exclusive and aristocratic party; their basis attacks on revealed religion? If not, cenhas been narrow, and their views rigid, pe- sures founded on this supposition will only dantic, and confined, and these defects are tend to strengthen the influence of any errors now working their downfal. But it is not it may really contain. Short of this, howtrue that they have generally been either ever, it may be from an indirect connexion selfish, ungenerous, or corrupt, they have between the principles it involves, and the been steady champions of constitutional opinions of the class referred to a confreedom, the bold denouncers of injustice nexion possibly real, though not seen by the and oppression, and the energetic friends of author-possibly erroneous, and such as religious liberty. To many of them we owe would be repudiated by him. In this case much gratitude and deep respect. Lord reasoning and discussion cannot be too much Grey in particular, though we cannot ap-directed to sift its views, and point out their prove of much of his early political conduct, real tendency. Again, it may be simply though much of it he regretted and con- from the absence of any reference to the demned himself, was yet a pure patriot and doctrines of religion, that the "Constitution a noble statesman. Through a long life he of Man" is said to be so much read by held aloof from place and power, because those to whom that absence is agreeable. they would not have enabled him to further In this case the author may plead, as he acthe objects for whose sake alone he valued tually does, that the nature of his subject them. He lived to see the day when place justifies the omission, and that the vague and power were offered to him, and the terms idea of its hostility to the cause of religion which he was enabled to make, were a peo- has no other foundation, than that nervous ple's emancipation. Nor, we confess, can jealousy which has beset every new branch we see the object to be gained by impressing of the natural sciences, before its bearing. on the minds of the nation the conviction and results were thoroughly understood. that their rulers are selfish and cold-hearted Now, in dealing with this book, we hold intriguers; by sapping all reverence for pub- that one charge, and one plea in defence, lic men, and encouraging the people to look must be both dismissed. It is certainly unupon them with enmity or with suspicion, or true, that this work contains any direct or by inculcating as the spirit in which states- wilful attack on the Christian Faith, which men should be judged and watched, a tem- is always spoken of in general terms at least per that thinketh much evil, and that cover-expressive of respect. There are no diseth no sins.

honest hints or malignant sneers. Christianity is frequently referred to as being true, and the Scriptures as possessing authority. When conclusions of the author

are opposed to any given tenet commonly [haustible proofs of harmony between the held by the Christian world, he uniformly word and works of God. represents himself as disputing not the Certainly, if there is one subject of inquiry, authority of Revelation, but the popular in- which less than others, can be viewed as terpretation of its words: and as regards separate from the domain of religious faith, the 66 practical results on conduct, he it is that to which this work of Mr. Combe makes the anxious but somewhat nega- refers. The CONSTITUTION OF MAN-was tive declaration, that to the best of his there ever so large a title-not a physical knowledge there is not one of them, as the description of this or that organ of man's "result of the natural laws expounded in body, or this or that function of his frame, the subsequent pages, which does not har- but a treatise on the constitution of Man, monize precisely, with the moral precepts of with all his powers of body or of mind? the New Testament." It is true, that Mr. Combe adds, "considered

But when Mr. Combe deprecates criticism in relation to external objects"-words as to the religious bearing of his work, on which in themselves may mean anything or the general plea that he confines himself to nothing, but the intended import of which the domain of natural science, or to quote is probably better conveyed in the form his own words, "exclusively to man as he before quoted-"man as he exists in the exists in the present world -we can only present world." But so little does Mr. accept it with great reserve. We admit, Combe find it possible to restrict the range indeed, the necessity of meeting the man of of his speculations, that we find him defining science on scientific ground; and the danger limits to the efficacy of prayer; and stating of committing the authority of the Bible to his own inference, as to the invariable manany conclusions, which researches in the ner of operation of the Divine Spirit. But, physical world may be competent to over- indeed, illustration is needless on such a throw. But it is one thing to admit the in- point. The belief that man, as he exists dependence of the physical observer, and in this world," is to have a personal identity another to admit the total irrelevance of his with himself, as he is to exist in the world subject or his reasonings, as regards the to come, is essential to the idea of a future things which belong to faith. The truth is, state and it is clearly very possible that that there is no branch of human inquiry, doctrine taught as to his "constitution" however purely physical, which is more than here, may and must, more or less, affect our the word branch implies; none which is not notions of his prospects hereafter. connected through endless ramifications with Consenting, therefore, to follow Mr. every other and, especially, with that which Combe on his own ground of inquiry, is the root and centre of them all. If He, whether physical or metaphysical-but rewho formed the mind, be one with Him who fusing to put off the watchfulness which is the orderer of all things about which that arises from a knowledge that the path on mind is occupied, there can be no end to the which he treads leads us directly into the points of contact between our conceptions mysteries of the Spirit, and the deep things of them, of Him, and of ourselves. Whilst, which belong to God-we proceed to walk therefore, it is folly to attempt to stop, by a with him for a while into this land of things religious interdict, the progress of the man very real, but very darkly seen: and we apof science in his own walk, it is both right prehend, that in judging of the safety of our and wise to follow his steps with a jealous and watchful care. Jealous-did we say? -yes, but a jealousy not of the subject, only of the inquirer. The very ground on which that jealousy is felt as regards the one, ought to be ground of sure hope in reference to the other. If the natural sciences, in certain stages of their progress, are apt As to the general drift and purport of to raise objections in the minds of some to this book, let us hear the author. His acthe truth of revealed religion, let us never count of his own production is really fair. be tempted to escape from the difficulty, by "I lay no claim to originality of conception. denying that deep connexion which is unde- The materials employed lie open to niable, and whose existence is witnessed by all. Taken separately, I would hardly say, the very misinterpretations it suggests. Let that a new truth has been presented in the us rather look to that connexion as the high- following work. The facts have nearly all est source of interest in the physical sciences, been admitted, and employed again and and as promising through their endless anal- again, by writers on morals from the time ogies, and suggestive types, new and inex- of Socrates down to the present day. The

guide, there are two questions mainly which we should endeavour to determine, first, Are those things which he does see, seen rightly, and in their due proportion? secondly, Are there other things which he has overlooked altogether in themselves, or in their bearing on the rest?

only novelty in this work respects the rela-, the brain sometimes indicate its functions! tions which acknowledged truths hold to A slight blow a temporary pressure on each other." So, then, the beads are old, that mysterious substance, will break down but the string is new; and never was such for ever the powers of a lofty intellect. value set upon so strange a thread. The Then, what is it in the aspect of idiocy, in essential element of the work is referred many of its forms, which we instantly recogto, as a system of mental philosophy the nise and never can mistake? In that low, "clearest, most complete, and best support pinched and retiring brow, instinct tells us ed" which has hitherto been taught. It is that reason cannot hold her seat. That spoken of, as opening up a new path to hu- there is a connexion, and a close and intiman improvement alike in morals, politics, mate connexion too, between the powers of and religion. For the want of it, we are thought, and the development of brain, is told, all previous works on mental science known by the millions who never question -that of Dr. Chalmers in his Bridgewater the grounds of their belief, as certainly as Treatise, as well as the rest of that celebrated to the few who have made it the subject of group of writings-in short, many of the special observation and research. These highest efforts of genius and learning have last, indeed, know farther, that it is a conbeen comparatively wasted, throwing ex-nexion not limited to our own species, but tremely little new light on the moral gov- extending over the whole range of animal ernment of the world,". What can this life, from man down to the reptile and the "theory of mind" be? Most men would fish. This is the great fact which may, unthink it better distinguished as a "theory of doubtedly, be so perverted as to form the matter"-in this important respect, that its plausible basis of a materialistic philosophy. special distinction from other "philosophies | But we do not see, that the farther refine of mind" is, that it is founded on the physi- ments on this fact which phrenology has ology of the brain. It is Phrenology! made, are in this respect one whit more Referring Mr. Combe, then, to the large formidable than the fact itself. If it be development of our organ of combativeness, true, that there is a direct relation between we pass over the "acknowledged truths," the mind and the brain, each considered as and proceed at once to this new "philosophy a whole, we see no ground for alarm, if it of mind," by which old facts are to be drilled should also prove to be a fact, that there is into new form and order. It is not needful a similar relation between the separate reto define Phrenology. Every one knows, gions of the one, and the several faculties of generally, what it is, and what it means. In the other. At first sight this may seem a this work our author "assumes" it, giving great step in advance: and so in one sense only an outline, and referring for more mi- it is; but not in that sense in which, pernute details to works expressly devoted to haps, it may be heralded by some friends, the subject. And as he assumes it so shall as it certainly is dreaded by many enemies we. That is to say, we do not care to op- of phrenology. It is the discovery of some pose it; nor do we share in the hostility detailed points of contact in that general entertained by many against this "science" connexion which has long been known: but in itself. It is very true, that phrenology may it is not one hair's-breadth advance towards be chosen by minds of a certain class, as the any explanation of the nature or source of basis of a gross materialism. But this may that connexion in itself. Still less does it be said, and is actually true, of most, if not tend to justify the reasoning which confounds of all the natural sciences. The great ques- connexion with identity. Yet we are not tion always is not whether such deductions surprised at the anxiety, which arose from a are, or may be drawn, but whether they are first view of the announcements of phrenol logical and true? Though not ourselves ogy. When, for example, Mr. Combe takes phrenologists, we should be very sorry to in his hand that human skull, and lifting off stake our faith in a single spiritual truth, its upper cover, tell us that the oval of convoon the successful disproof of any of its luted matter thus exposed to view, "maniassumed facts. The truth is, that the main fests the Moral Sentiments "-with what fact that of which all the rest are, as it feelings can we receive the statement? The were, but subdivisions more or less justified MORAL SENTIMENTS-what do not these inby observation-is one which has been in- clude? The power of seeing moral beauty, stinctively assumed in every age and coun- and of loving truth-the sense of justice, and try. "That man has no brains!" is a sen- the desire of serving in her cause-conscience tence on mental capacity which would be and benevolence, charity and faith-all that universally understood, and would have is best and noblest in the human spiritbeen equally intelligible before Gall and these are what we are told are manifestSpurzheim were born. How painfully does ed" there! Some, of course, will turn

away with ridicule and disgust. For our-nologist may, indeed, be also an excellent selves, we listen with no such feelings. We metaphysician: but the process by which watch, indeed, the evidence on which the we observe in others, or analyze in ourassertion is made, the inferences drawn selves, those various faculties of the mind from it, and last, not least, the very terms which are capable of being separately conin which it is conveyed, with almost as fixed sidered, is wholly independent of that after attention as we gaze on the object to which process by which we find for them a local those terms refer. But we do not reject it habitation in the regions of the brain. The with absolute incredulity; because we know phrenologist must not be allowed to cut out some things connected with that abode of any new faculties to distribute among his life, which are at least analogous, and as full bumps; nor to confound under a single of wonder. name powers which, in the same point of Now, as regards terms and forms of view, are essentially distinct. His business statement, no writer ever required to be is simply topographical-to reconcile, as more closely watched than Mr. Combe. A best he may, the observed phenomena of "mental philosophy"-a "theory of mind," the mind with the outward mouldings of a what can he mean by this as a description material organ. And in the observation of of phrenology?* Words, which ought to these phenomena themselves, mental science be the servants of thought, are so often its is not only absolutely independent of phremasters, that this becomes a question of the nology, but phrenology is absolutely defirst importance. Does he mean to repre- pendent upon it. In all reasoning, we must sent it as telling us anything on the nature have a basis of fact already known, from of mind on the source of its powers-or which to argue to other facts which remain even one new fact concerning the scientific to be discovered. Now, in this case, the division of its faculties? If he does not, mental facts are those which must be known in what sense is it a philosophy of mind? or assumed before phrenology can even renIf he does, let us cross-question him on the der intelligible the physical facts which she extent of this pretension. Phrenology undertakes to prove. If, for example, it maps the human head into a series of mi- were not a well-known fact, that pugnacity nute divisions, and allocates to each of these of disposition is a distinct feature in some some known faculty of mind; but does it men's characters, capable of being distinprofess to have discovered these faculties guished from other qualities of their mind, themselves? It seems to be forgotten that the phrenologist would be compelled to this mapping of the brain can only proceed choose some other name for that section of upon a previous mapping of the mind; and the brain which he now rails off for comthat this last no more belongs to the de- bativeness.' And so with every other partment of the phrenologist than the per"organ. The very word enforces our exception of national character in a people planation. If the phrenologist consents to belongs to the department of the geogra- accept such division of the mental faculties pher, who surveys their country. The geo-as a higher science than his own has estabgrapher may, indeed, be also an acute ob- lished, he is welcome to find for them, if he server of human nature, and in taking the can, a separate corner in the house of measurement of their abode, he may like- thought. But if he makes one such diviwise take accurate observations of their ca- sion for himself which is not approved by pacity and genius. He may go farther, and the consciousness or experience of mankind, fitting to each other these two classes of fact, then must his imaginary lines be obliterated he may observe that vague but undoubted or changed.*

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connexion which obtains between the char- To call phrenology, then, a "philosophy acter of a race, and the physical condition of mind," can only be accounted for on one of the region in which they live. But geo- of two suppositions; either that the writer graphy is not, on this account, a philosophy uses very careless language, covering a real of mind, and the greater closeness of con- confusion of idea: or else that a pretension nexion between the texture of mind and the is advanced on behalf of phrenology not development of brain does not redeem the merely to point out the places where, but the confusion of thought which is implied in manner how the brain and mind are mutualthis description of phrenology. The phre- ly connected: or, in other words, to advance a "theory of mind," based on certain

We need hardly say, that we accept the term "Phrenology," simply as that assumed for the "science." Craniology" is repudiated as a nickname: though, since the only accessible mode of measuring the brain is by measuring the cranium, the latter is the fairer term of the two.

It is impossible to consider the 35 heads under which Phrenology divides the mental faculties, with out seeing that they are extremely arbitrary and extremely imperfect. But this is a subject which we cannot pursue.

phenomena of matter, as regards the source not difficult to specify in the ordinary forms and nature of its powers. Yet when Mr. of language. But Mr. Combe evidently Combe has occasion to bespeak the favour thinks that a flood of new light is cast upon of readers who disbelieve his favourite the subject, by informing us that this carter science, he takes care to recognize the dis-"manifests excessive Destructiveness with tinction we have pointed out, and separates, deficient Benevolence, Veneration, Justice with tolerable justice, between the provin- and Intellect." The consequences of such a ces of physiology and metaphysics. He character are very properly described as says in the preface to this edition, "We are pursuing him in every relation of life, and physical, organic, and moral beings, acting the result, we are told is, that his active under general laws, whether the connexion cerebral faculties rouse Combativeness, of different mental qualities with particular Destructiveness, Self-Esteem, Secretiveness, portions of the brain, as taught by phre- and Cautiousness, in his wife, children, or nology, be admitted or denied. In so far, associates, against him, and they inflict on therefore, as this work treats of the known him animal punishment." Very sound qualities of man, it may be instructive even moral philosophy all this, doubtless; but, to those who contemn phrenology as un- proceeding on a "theory of mind" vastly founded." Here the important truth, obvi- older than Mr. Combe or his master, and to ous enough, certainly, is admitted, that which their science has added nothing. So phrenology can only refer "mental qualities" far as any novelty in this respect is concernalready known" to a local connexion pre-ed, Mr. Combe might as well expect it from viously unknown. Yet totally forgetting proceeding to describe, anatomically, the that of these two connected things-the precise nature of that "animal punishment" qualities of mind and the particular portions which the carter's wife, &c., are supposed to of brain-the important one as regards the have inflicted, and the particular muscles "philosophy of mind" is that division of its called into play in the course of their laudafaculties which is well known and familiar, ble exertions. Again, the moral judgment he uniformly speaks as if the foundation of of our time has pretty well settled the charthat philosophy were the discovery of the acter and disposition in which the slaveassociated bits of matter; and as if, instead trade originated, and which the prosecution of the skull being mapped from the obser- of it tended to aggravate. Mr. Combe volvations of mind, the mind were to be map-unteers his phrenological explanation, that ped from the diagrams of the phrenologist. England was guilty of this crime, "under Throughout the "Constitution of Man" the impulses of excessively strong Acquisithis strange inversion of ideas betrays itself tiveness, Self-Esteem, and Destructiveness.' in forms which, if sometimes mischievous The first American war, likewise, is rescued as regards the truths of moral science, are, from the imperfect judgment of former hisat least, very often droll in the images they torians, and Britain is described as having present. Mr. Combe's philosophy is like a "desired to gratify her Acquisitiveness and glass in which we see everything upside Self-Esteem in opposition to Benevolence down. Everything is regarded, as it were, and Justice." "This roused," we are farfrom a cerebral point of view. A man is ther told, "the animal resentment" of the but an agglomeration of bumps; his con- transatlantic colonies, and "the propensiduct the result of their "spontaneous" ac- ties of the two nations came into collision:" tivities: and historical events but the issue "that is to say"-says Mr. Combe, naïvely, of their combinations. Moral principles aware of the necessity of a translationare but laws of brain, and cannot be really "they made war upon each other." There understood, unless treated of in proper cere- is no end to the illumination which this bral phraseology. Under the Chapter of phrenological verbiage is supposed to cast on calamities arising from the infringement of the most familiar doctrines of moral and the moral laws, many examples are given mental philosophy. There is one doctrine of the new light which this method is sup- shortly expressed in the popular proverb, posed to cast. For example, the retribu- that "Honesty is the best policy," which is tion which arises from the indulgence of made the subject of a very elaborate explacruelty and selfishness in the treatment of nation from a text of Grecian history. It the lower animals, is referred to by Mr. occurred to Themistocles, in a time of proCombe, in the supposed case of a carter found peace, that it would be very conven"who half starves his horse, and unmerci-ient for Athens to destroy the naval power fully beats it." Now, the vicious disposi- of Sparta, by burning her fleet. Aristides tions which such conduct shews, and the is reported to have said, that doubtless it higher qualities of mind which it proves to would be very advantageous, but equally be absent, or in abeyance, are all of them unjust. This verdict was certainly not in a