first assaulted Drogheda, and, to strike down resistance by one terrible example, put the whole garrison to the sword. He next laid siege to Wexford, and although the garrison intended to capitulate on conditions, his troops rushing in gave no quarter. His merciless policy produced the effect he desired, and he met with little further resistance. In nine months the island was totally subdued.

Young Charles having accepted the conditions imposed by the Scotch Commissioners at Breda, in Holland, set sail for Scotland, and arrived at Cromarty, 23d June 1650. The gallant Montrose had previously attempted to renew his wonderful exploits, but, being defeated and betrayed, was executed. He died like a hero.

Fairfax having refused to serve against the Scotch Presbyterians, Cromwell was recalled from Ireland, and put at the head of 16,000 men, with whom he entered Scotland. Leslie, who commanded the Scotch, manoeuvred so skilfully, that Cromwell, threatened with famine, had to retreat. The ardour of the Scots at Dunbar, in forcing Leslie to battle, led to their being defeated with great slaughter (3d September 1650). Leith and Edinburgh immediately after fell into the hands of Cromwell. On the 1st January 1651 Charles was crowned at Scone, after he had solemnly sworn to respect the Covenant and the laws of the country, the crown being placed on his head by Argyle. In April, with Leslie and Middleton for lieutenants, he took command of the army of 20,000 men. On the 3d July, Cromwell marched on Stirling. On the 30th of the same month, Charles announced his intention of invading England, and although Argyll, disapproving of the plan, retired, he set out for Carlisle on the following day at the head of 14,000 men from Stirling. Cromwell, leaving the reduction of Scotland to Monk, prepared to march in the direction of York. Many of the Scotch, disliking the king's expedition, fell away; nor was he joined as he had expected by English partisans. At Worcester the royal army was totally routed by Cromwell, 3d September 1651; and Charles, after assuming various disguises, and encountering many perils, escaped to Fecamps in Normandy.

A.D. 1653.] CROMWELL FORCIBLY BREAKS UP PARLIAMENT.

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Ireland, Scotland, and the American colonies were now all reduced to obedience. Monk, following Cromwell's example in Ireland, had put the garrison of Dundee to the sword, but afterwards did much by his prudent conduct to reconcile the Scottish people.

In order to employ the army and raise the fame of the Commonwealth, the Parliament sought a pretext of quarrel with the Dutch. The fleets of Admiral Blake and Van Tromp met not far from Dover, and an accidental engagement ensued, 19th May 1652. On the English side it was alleged that the Dutch had offered insult by refusing to salute the Republican flag; while the Dutch said they had been fired upon while preparing to pay due honours. Night parted the combatants, and the Dutch fleet retired to the coast of Holland. Although the Dutch Government offered explanations, the Parliament declared war. Similar results attended an engagement near Plymouth between Sir George Ayscue and De Ruyter. In another engagement near the coast of Kent, Blake defeated De Ruyter and De Witt. Blake again encountered Tromp and De Ruyter near the Goodwin Sands, but was worsted; his fleet suffering so much that Tromp, after the victory, fixed a broom at his masthead, to signify that he would sweep the sea. Determined to repair this disgrace, a fleet of eighty sail was fitted out. At the head of this, Blake, with Monk and Dean under him, set out to look for the enemy, and descrying (18th February 1653) a Dutch fleet of seventy-six sail, with a convoy of 300 merchantmen, off Portland, a famous battle ensued, which lasted three days. The Dutch were finally defeated.

Mutual distrust between the army and the Parliament led the former to write angry remonstrances, and the latter to resolve not to dissolve, but to fill up vacancies in their number as they occurred, by individual elections. In this position of affairs, Cromwell, going to the House with 300 soldiers, turned out the members, and by this despotic act, virtually became sole ruler (20th April 1653), with no other official title than that of Lord-General. By the advice of his Council of officers, he then summoned 128 persons from English towns and counties, with five from Scotland

and sixteen from Ireland, to exercise legislative authority for fifteen months, and then to nominate their successors. These were elected by the council from a long list sent in by congregationalist ministers, and were called the Little Parliament. This Parliament, shortly after meeting, resigned its authority, and Cromwell was, by his Council of officers, declared Lord Protector of the Commonwealth (16th December). On this occasion he accepted what was called The Instrument of Government, composed of forty-two articles, which placed the legislative power in the Protector and Parliament, and the executive in the Protector acting by the advice of his Council. He was installed with great ceremony, and the new government proclaimed (1653). In no way but by his vigorous hand could tranquillity have been maintained, so extreme and violent were the various political and religious parties.

While negotiations for peace were proceeding between the two republican governments, the Dutch fleet, under Tromp, again sailed out from Texel; and the English, under Monk, left its harbour (July 1654). They met, and the death of Tromp decided the victory in favour of the English. A treaty of peace was soon after signed, and a defensive league formed. Commercial jealousy had, no doubt, originated and fostered the animosity which had existed between the two nations.

In accordance with the articles of the Cromwellian constitution, a Parliament was called, the franchise being granted to all who possessed real or personal property to the amount of £200, excluding, however, Roman Catholics, and all who had been in arms in support of the late king. The members elected numbered 460, and were the united representatives of the three kingdoms. Some disposition being shown by the Presbyterians who had been returned, to question the Protector's authority, he required all to sign an acknowledgment of it, or be excluded. A hundred refused, and others who agreed showed their hostility in various ways. After this Parliament had been in existence for five months, Cromwell dissolved it with a rebuke. This aggravated the growing discontent.

A.D. 1657.]

CROMWELL OFFERED THE CROWN.

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Cromwell, ever ambitious of upholding the flag of England, as well as of overawing foreign potentates opposed to Protestantism, and principally the Pope, despatched Admiral Blake, whose fame was now universal, to the Mediterranean, where no English fleet had sailed since the Crusades; and after having obliged the Duke of Tuscany to give redress for injuries done to British commerce, next inflicted severe chastisement on the pirates of Algiers and Tunis (1655). Admirals Penn and Venables having failed in an attempt on St. Domingo, found compensation in the seizure of the valuable island of Jamaica (1656). This seizure provoking the Spaniards into a declaration of war, Blake pursued the Spanish fleet into their own harbour of Santa Cruz, and there destroyed it. This was his last victory; for returning home, this naval hero died within sight of his native land (20th April 1657).

During this year, the Parliament offered Cromwell the title, dignity, and office of King; but however he might be secretly disposed to accept this offer, he had the prudence to decline it. But no matter what his title was, he exercised sovereign rule, and showed immense capacity for governing. During his protectorship, England was looked upon by foreign nations as the champion of humanity, truth, and justice, and was honoured and feared accordingly; but worried by the divisions and envy of the extreme Republicans on the one hand, and by the intrigues of the Royalists on the other, he was unable to carry out the many social reforms he had at heart, and which we find frequent mention of in his addresses to Parliament, such as law reform, humanizing the spirit of our penal code, &c. Europe, no less than England, owes him much for the support which he gave to Protestantism. At the same time it is impossible to defend many of the rude and barbarous acts committed under his orders. The third Parliament convened by the Protector by an Act called the Humble Petition and Advice, enlarged his authority, settled on him an annual revenue, and allowed him to appoint his successor (1657).

Having joined France against Spain, the Protector sent 6000 men into Flanders under Lockhart and Reynolds, who joined

Marshal Turenne. The Spaniards approaching to relieve Dunkirk, were routed in the battle of the Dunes (1658), where the English excited admiration by their valour. The Spanish power in Flanders thus received a severe blow.

His mind was

The health of Cromwell now began to decline. much affected by the discovery of conspiracies and discontents: he was harassed by apprehensions of assassination, and while troubled by anxieties of all kinds, his daughter Elizabeth, to whom he was tenderly attached, died. He could not survive the blow. A tertian ague set in, and he died 3d September 1658. No character has been more disputed, but after all allowances for faults, few impartial judges will dispute the declaration of the French minister Mazarin, that he was at that time the greatest man in the worid. Lord Macaulay pronounces Cromwell the greatest prince that has ever ruled England. The fact that John Milton, than whom a more sublime poet never adorned any age or country, was his secretary and devoted servant, speaks volumes for the true character of Oliver Cromwell.

On the 4th September, Richard, eldest son of Oliver Cromwell, was proclaimed Protector. The country for the moment acquiesced, but the elements of discord were too numerous and too active for his weak hand to reduce to order. A Parliament was summoned, and met on the 29th January 1659, composed of Republicans and Royalists. The Republicans were opposed to the government of the country by a single man, and maintained that in Parliament alone should be vested supreme authority. The Royalists rightly judging that the patience of the country would soon be exhausted by the discords of the different Republican factions, did their utmost to foment and inflame them by their intrigues. But the conduct of the army under Lambert and other extreme Republican generals, was the most alarming feature of the time. It aimed at making itself entirely independent of the civil power. A Council of officers was formed, and as the Commons opposed it, they insisted that Richard should issue a proclamation dissolving Parlia