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of our Christian faith safe through heathendom and through anarchy, but kept alive the sacred fire of science and of art, and fostered all the elements of civilisation, till, through the medium of the press, the glorious treasure was withdrawn from her exclusive grasp to become the possession of all alike.

Cotemporary Events.-France: Philip 1., Louis VI. Scotland: Edgar, Alexander I.,

David I.

Questions.-1. What measures did Henry Beauclerc take in order to conciliate his Saxon subjects? 2. What was the nature of Henry's disputes with the Pope? 3. Write an account of the heir-apparent's death. 4. What was the character of Henry's government? 5. Give an account of the Feudal System, and compare it with the Anglo-Saxon in respect of the tenure of land, and the comparative influence of the two systems in promoting the liberty of the people (vide pp. 10 and 30). 6. How was the growth of towns likely to affect the feudal constitution of society?

4. Stephen (Usurper).

A. D. 1135-1154.

CIVIL WAR-GROWTH AND POWER OF THE CHURCH-TEMPORARY SUCCESS OF MATILDA AND GLOUCESTER-BATTLE OF THE STANDARD AND OF LINCOLN STEPHEN A PRISONER-GENERAL ANARCHY AND FEUDAL OPPRESSION.

Stephen was son of the Count of Blois and Adela daughter of William the Conqueror. Although he owed his vast possessions in England to the liberality of Henry I., and had with the other barons recognised the right of the king's daughter Matilda to the throne, yet when Henry died, Stephen's ambition broke through all engagements and scruples. He hastened to England, where his courteous and affable manner had made him a favourite, and where his brother, the Bishop of Winchester, had gained for him the support of the Church. The feudal barons, to whom the idea of female rule was a novelty, offered no opposition to Stephen's usurpation, while the citizens of London, whose influence was on the increase, also favoured him. After

A.D. 1138.] POWER OF THE CHURCH-CIVIL WAR.

33

his coronation, he proceeded, like other usurpers, to grant charters guaranteeing certain rights and privileges to his subjects.

But this example of usurpation, and the civil war which almost necessarily followed, were attended with sad effects. The king's claim was not universally recognised, and his power of maintaining law and order was consequently small. The barons, each regarding his own interest as opposed to that of his neighbour, fortified their castles, which had been rapidly multiplying over the country. Impregnably intrenched in them, and aided by formidable retinues of vassals, they made war upon each other, setting at defiance all law and justice, pillaging and wasting the surrounding country and villages, torturing and massacring the inhabitants, and committing barbarities even worse than the Pagan Danes had committed. The land was in consequence left deserted and uncultivated, and indescribable misery was the lot of the English under the lawless tyranny of those fierce feudal chiefs. All the abuses of which the feudal system was capable, may be said to have been condensed into this reign. The power and wealth of the Church also had been increasing with great and alarming rapidity. The prelates, by possessing large tracts of land, were military leaders no less than ecclesiastics, and as they were united by a common tie, and by the recognition of an authority which they considered higher than the king's, they were especially formidable. Stephen, seeing the evil which was threatening the state from this quarter, entered upon a contest with the bishops, and demanded from them a surrender of their fortified castles; and on the occasion of a dispute which broke out at Oxford between the retainers of some ecclesiastics and those of the Earl of Brittany, he arrested two bishops, and deprived them of the lands which they held as barons. His brother, Bishop of Winchester and Papal legate,-protested against this breach of ecclesiastical privilege.

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Matilda took advantage of this quarrel with the Church, and landed in England. As she and her husband, the Count of Anjou, were on bad terms, the Earl of Gloucester, her natural brother, made himself her champion. Her uncle David, king of Scotland,

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also took up her cause, and, in supporting her claim, fought and lost a tremendous battle, called The Battle of the Standard,—a tall cross borne in a waggon, being the standard under which Stephen's party fought (1138). At the battle of Lincoln, however (1141), the Earl of Gloucester, who commanded Matilda's troops, defeated the Royal army, and made Stephen prisoner. The account which an old chronicler gives of this battle is so graphic, that we shall present it in his own words. After a successful charge made by Gloucester, and the flight of the Royal cavalry, "King Stephen with his infantry stood alone in the midst of the enemy. These surrounded the Royal troops, attacking the columns on all sides, as if they were assaulting a castle. Then the battle raged terribly round this circle; helmets and swords gleamed as they clashed, and the fearful cries and shouts re-echoed from the neighbouring hills and city walls. The cavalry furiously charging the royal column, slew some and trampled down others: some were made prisoners. No respite, no breathing-time was allowed, except in the quarter in which the king himself had taken his stand, where the assailants recoiled from the unmatched force of his terrible arm. The Earl of Chester seeing this, and envious of the glory the king was gaining, threw himself upon him with the whole weight of his men-at-arms. Even then, the king's courage did not fail, but his heavy battleaxe gleamed like lightning, striking down some, bearing back others. At length it was shattered by repeated blows. Then he drew his well-tried sword, with which he wrought wonders, till that too was broken. Perceiving which, William de Kaimes, a brave soldier, rushed on him, and seizing him by the helmet, shouted, Here, here, I have taken the king!' Others came to

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his aid, and the king was made captive." By Matilda's order he was loaded with chains and cast into prison.

The sceptre thus passed for a time into Matilda's hands, but she soon lost it by her arrogance and vindictiveness. Amongst other acts of imprudence, she punished the Londoners for their fidelity to Stephen, by imposing on them a heavy tax. She had under-esti

A.D. 1154.]

RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF ORDER.

35

mated the growing power of the burgesses. They revolted, and she had to provide for her safety by retreat. The Bishop of Winchester, whose conduct throughout this struggle had been equivocal, veering, as he did, from one party to the other, now once more openly espoused the side of Stephen, who was disposed to compromise matters with the Church, and besieged Matilda in Winchester. At the end of seven weeks, Matilda, finding provisions fail, effected her escape, but the Earl of Gloucester was made prisoner. He was exchanged for Stephen, who passed from his dungeon to the throne. The brave Gloucester died soon after, and Matilda having lost the man who had been the soul of her party, again took refuge in Normandy.

Not long after, the death of Stephen's eldest son paved the way for a treaty between Stephen and Matilda's son Henry, now sixteen years old. This boy was master of nearly the half of France, viz., of Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, inherited from his father; of Normandy, from his mother; and of Guyenne, with six adjoining provinces, obtained by marriage with Eleanor of Guyenne, the divorced wife of Louis VII. of France. It was agreed that Stephen should continue to reign during his lifetime, and that Henry should succeed him, all the barons swearing to observe the treaty and paying homage to Henry as heir to the English throne. Stephen died in the following year (1154).

Second

Cotemporary Events.-Alfonso 1. recovers Portugal from the Saracens (1139). Crusade preached by St. Bernard (1147). France: Louis VI and VII. Scotland: David I. and Malcolm IV.

Questions.-1. Give an account of the state of England after Stephen's accession. 2. How did the constitution of society tend to produce such disorder? 3. Relate the course of events which led to Matilda's assertion of her rights. 4. Write an account of the battle of Lincoln. 5. What led to a peace? Give the terms of the treaty.

RE-ESTABLISHMENT

5. Henry II. (Plantagenet.)

A. D. 1154-1189.

OF ORDER-THOMAS À BECKET-STRUGGLE WITH THE CHURCH-INVASION OF IRELAND-REBELLION OF HENRY'S SONS-CHARACTER OF HENRY'S GOVERNMENT.

Henry II. was the first of the Plantagenet1 dynasty. Το prevent the recurrence of such evils as had been caused by the civil wars of the preceding reign, Henry demolished the fortresses erected by the barons, whose ambition it had been to render themselves independent of the king. He sent out of the country the foreign mercenaries introduced by Stephen. He also divided England into six districts, and appointed itinerant judges to inquire into the administration of the laws.

Though his possessions in France were already more extensive and compact than those of Louis VII., the king of that country, Henry determined to possess himself of Brittany. This he accomplished by the marriage of his second son Geoffrey to Constance, its heiress.

The two great events of this reign were the quarrel between Henry and Thomas à Becket, and the annexation of Ireland to the English crown.

Thomas à Becket was an Anglo-Saxon, a man of great ability, learning, ambition, and of inflexible will. He had been Henry's Chancellor, and had also distinguished himself in some of the king's military expeditions. During this part of his career, he outshone his cotemporaries no less in ability than in the splendour of his mode of life. The pretensions of the Church, supported by the Pope, had reached an alarming height,2 and Henry, who determined to be king not only over his English and Norman barons, but over prelates and churchmen too, thought to find in Becket an instrument at once powerful and pliant for carrying out his designs, and, with this object in view, appointed him Primate of

1 Son of the Earl of Anjou, Geoffrey Plantagenet, so called from the plant genista, which the family wore as an emblem.

2 See pp. 29 and 33.

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