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325 of forms of the animate world" (p. 3). Except decided dualists, no one disputes the first part of Kölliker's thesis. But the identification of the development of the organic individual, excluding the law of heredity, with the simple process of crystallization, or any other operation of chemical combination repeating itself under given conditions, scarcely needs a detailed refutation. Kölliker says, and tries to prove, that the so-called monophyletic hypothesis, according to which the different families of organisms are derived from a single primordial form, has to struggle with insurmountable difficulties; that the hypothesis of descent from many families (polyphyletic) possesses more probability. If this be admitted, then—and here comes a bold leap of the imagination— the adherent of the polyphyletic hypothesis finds himself in a position to attribute different pedigrees and primordial forms not only to the higher divisions, but even to their genera, and to assume their independent origin. Nay, it even seems credible that the self-same species may appear in different pedigrees; as by the incontrovertible supposition of general laws of formation, it cannot be seen why like primary shapes should not, under certain circumstances, be able to lead to like final forms (see p. 21). Nay, this hypothesis does more, for "even if individuals of the same species occupy remote localities, as, for instance, Pennatula phosphorea, Funiculina quadrangularis, Renilla reniformis, &c., it is surely more fitting to assume their independent origin." Kölliker's polyphyletic hypothesis put an end to all difficulties, and, among others, it explains the so-called "representative forms" to be mentioned in cur tenth chapter; for, from "this standpoint, it is credible that these forms are not genetically connected, but belong to different pedigrees" (p. 23). And all this, and much more, is supposed to be conceivable, because the world of organisms, in its consecutive development, follows intrinsic causes or definite laws of formation, "laws which, in a perfectly definite manner, urge on the organisms to constantly higher development." At the same time, Kölliker deliberates (p. 38) whether, just as here germs and buds, so also free existing youthful forms of animals did not possess the power of striking out a development different from the typical one, which freedom must be severely mulcted by the law of development, which can and must create individuals of the same species at the

opposite poles. Kölliker (p. 44) thus sums up his fundamental view-" that in and with the first origin of organic matter and of organisms, the whole plan of development, the collective series of possibilities, were also potentially given, but that various external impulses operated determinatively on individual developments, and impressed a definite stamp upon them." Notwithstanding the scientific dress, dualism is here complete; whereas, Physics and Chemistry make their laws, applying to inorganic as well as to organic nature, comprehensible in their form, purport, and effects, Kölliker knows nothing of the constitution of his laws. The doctrine of natural selection allows us to recognize the causes and effects of heredity and adaptation, and establishes the phenomenal series under the form of laws. But laws which are founded only on a plan which is to be carried out prospectively and in subservience to this dower of imperfect organisms, are ignored by natural science.

69 Ueber die Herkunft unserer Thierwelt. Einezoo-geographische Skizze von L. Rütimeyer (Basel, 1867). We have made copious use in our text of this extremely instructive writing.

7o A. R. Wallace, Malay Archipelago. P. 10, &c.

71 G. Koch, Die indo-australische Lepidopteren-Fauna in ihren Zusammenhang mit den drei Hauptfaunen der Erde. (1 Ed. Berlin, 1873.)

72 Peschl, Neue Probleme der vergleichende Erdkunde, 1870.

73 All the more distinct is the affinity of the Mastodon and the Elephant. Between the pliocene Mastodon Borsoni and the Elephas primigenius, twenty species are interposed, among which are our still living species, the Indian and African elephants. The limits of the two genera are hereby entirely obliterated. According to other statements, the Elephas primigenius (the mammoth) falls into at least four geographical varieties, which join on to the American species. A dwarf species of elephant is found in the caves of Malta, which in dentition attaches itself to the African species.

7 Joh. Schmidt, The Relationships of the Indo-Germanic Languages. 1872.

75 Various antagonists of the doctrine of descent have vented their moral dismay in the most poignant expressions, precluding

the "

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327 any scientific discussion, on finding that the pedigree of the Vertebrata, and therewith of man, is actually traced beyond the vertebrated animals to so low a being as the Ascidians. It is otherwise with the critics of Kowalewsky's and Kupffer's observations, who acknowledge the facts, but think themselves obliged to differ in their interpretation. One of these is A. Giard, in his work on Embryogènie des Ascidiens." (Archive de Zoologie expérimentale, Paris, 1872.) The pupil of Lacaze Duthiers says :--“ La chorde et l'appendice caudale sont chez la larve Ascidienne des organes de locomotion d'un importance assez secondaire malgré leur généralité, pour qu'on les voie disparaître presque entièrement dans le genre Molgula, où ils sont devenus inutiles par suite des mœurs de l'animal adulte; l'homologie entre cette chorde dorsale et celle des vertébrés n'est donc qu'une homologie d'adaptation déterminée à remplir l'iodentité des fonctions, et n'indique pas de rapports de parente immediate entre les vertébrés et les Ascidiens." The author thus denies the consanguinity of the vertebrate animals and Ascidians, and traces back to adaptation the resemblance approaching identity occurring in the organs of the two. The inferences in these few sentences appear to us utterly at fault. The circumstance that in Molgula, and many other Testacea, development takes a narrower course, makes as little alteration in the importance of the facts as, for instance, the Nauplius development of the Peneus observed by Fritz Müller, or the Navicula of the Molluscs, is prejudiced by the fact that the other Decapods have forfeited the Nauplius phase, or the Landsnails the navicula phase. But it is simply incomprehensible in what the identity of functions is to consist which in the Vertebrata was capable of producing the notochord, with, it is particularly to be remarked, the spinal cord (which M. Giard entirely forgets); and, in the other case, the " homologie d'adaptation." We, on the contrary, see these organs performing different functions, because in the one they remain of fundamental importance through life, and not in the other. Thus we conversely lay the stress on the morphological identity accompanying functional difference. M. Giard adduces

no facts.

76 T. H. Huxley, Manual of the Anatomy of the Vertebrated Animals. German Ed.

77 March, American Journal of Sciences and Arts, February, 1873.

78 Eckermann, Gespräche mit Goethe. II. 152.

79 Rousseau, Emile (Œuvres, Paris, 1820, IX.17). "Nous n'avons point la mesure de cette machine immense; nous n'en pouvons calculer les rapports; nous n'en connaissons ni les premières lois, ni la cause finale; nous nous ignorons nous-mêmes; nous ne connaissons ni notre nature, ni notre principe actif.”

80 Metamorphose der Thiere.

81 R. Valdek in the "Presse," 1865, No. 327.

82 Huxley, Man's Place in Nature, 1863. Manual of the Anatomy of the Vertebrated Animals.

83 Broca, L'Ordre des Primates. Parallèle anatomique des l'Homme et des Singes. (Paris, 1870.)

84 Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker, 6 thl., p. 796. Bearbeitet von Gerland.

85 Do. p. 708.

86 66 Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung,” 1873, Nos. 92–94. Beilage. 87 I heard the lectures delivered at Strasburg by this scholar, “ Ueber die Resultate der Sprachswissenschaft," with great interest and advantage.

88 L. Geiger, Der Ursprung der Sprache, 1869, p. 37. 89 Steinthal, Der Ursprung der Sprache, 1851.

90 Fr. Müller, Allgemeine Ethnographie. Wen., 1873.

INDEX.