The best edition is that by Tauchnitz, Leipzig, 16 vols. 18mo, 1832.

Theophrastus, 321 B.C.

He possessed eminent powers, both in eloquence and philosophy; distinguished for watchful observation, he placed more reliance on experience than on speculation.-Eschenburg.

The best edition is that of Schneider, Leipzig, 1818, 5 vols. 8vo.-Anthon.

Translated by H. Gally, London, 1725.

Plutarch, A.D. 50.

In numerous philosophical pieces we find an eloquent diction and a rich fertility of thought, together with various knowledge and real prudence. They are important sources for learning the history of philosophy and of the human mind.-Anthon.

Best edition is that of Reiske, Leipzig, 1774-82, 12 vols. 8vo. English translation, M. Morgan and others, London, 1718, 5 vols. 8vo.

Sextus Empiricus, 190.

His works are very valuable in illustrating the history of philosophy, especially that of the skeptical school. The first edition was printed at Paris, 1621, folio.-Anthon.

Plotinus, 203.

One of the earliest teachers of the Alexandrian or GræcoOriental school of philosophy. He laboured much to attain the comprehension of the absolute, and was learned and enthusiastic. The most celebrated of his works is the Enneades.

Best edition of his works is Creuzer, Oxon, 1835, 3 vols. Tenneman gives a good synopsis of his philosophy.

Porphyry, 233.

A disciple of Plotinus, and a bitter adversary of Christianity. He believed himself, like his master, to be in direct communication with the gods. His principal works are, Life of Pythagoras, Life of Plotinus, A Treatise of Predicables, and one on Pythagorean Abstinence.

Iamblichus, 4th century.

Notwithstanding the extravagance, mysticism, and fable with which his works abound, they are yet a valuable help

in getting an idea of the philosophy of the later Platonists. There has been no edition of his entire works.-Anthon.

Proclus, 412.

Of the Alexandrian school; lost in mystical reveries, but greatly admired in his day.

A recent edition of his works, more complete than any previous one, has been published by M. Cousin.

Stobæus, 450.

His collection from a multitude of philosophical writers is valuable, both on account of the contents themselves, and also of the numerous passages rescued from destruction only by being inserted therein.

The best edition, Heeren, Goettingen, 1792, 2 vols. 8vo.

2. ROMAN.

M. T. Cicero, 106 B.C.

He was a Platonist in philosophy, although he set forth the principles of almost every school of philosophy except the Epicurean. Of his philosophical works, the "Academical Investigations," in two books, are the most valuable.Enc. Am.

Annæus Seneca, 58 B.C.

In his philosophical writings, there is much acumen and matter for reflection; the style, however, is too often artificially elaborate, and tiresome by its antitheses.-Eschb.

The best edition is Seneca, cum notis variorum, Amst., 1672, 3 vols. 8vo. Translation of Seneca's Epistles by F. Morell, 2 vols. 4to, $5 50.

3. CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHERS.

Justin Martyr, A.D. 103.

He combined with Christianity a portion of the Greek philosophy, endeavouring to purify the latter. Tatian ( a contemporary) attempted, on the other hand to Christianize the ORIENTAL philosophy. The conversion of J. Martyr is an instructive commentary on the condition of thoughtful minds in his time.

Irenæus, 108.

Fragments of his works in Greek are preserved, which prove that his style was simple, though clear and often animated. His opinions concerning the soul are curious. He set himself to refute the Oriental errors which had crept into the

West, and which were attempting to corrupt Christianity.— Anthon.

The best edition, Grabe, Oxon, folio, 1702.

Clement of Alexandria, 180.

Some parts of his Stromata are rich in historical notices of philosophy, as well as in logical and theoretical views.

Origen, 185.

He is undoubtedly one of the most remarkable men among the Christian writers His talents, eloquence, and learning have been celebrated not only by Christian writers, but by heathen philosophers.-Anthon.

The best edition is that of De la Rue, Paris, 1733-59, 4 vols. folio, reprinted at Wuertzburg, 15 vols. 8vo, 1780.

Eusebius, 264.

His “Præparatio Evangelica," though its subject is one entirely sacred in its nature, yet contains a great number of valuable notices respecting the mythology of the pagan nations, and the philosophy of the Greeks in particular.— Anthon.

Best edition, Vigier, Paris, 1628, folio, reprinted Leipz., 1688, folio.

Lactantius and Arnobius.

These Numidian philosophers and fathers have both left able attacks on the philosophy of the Gentiles. That of Lactantius, called the Divine Institutes, and which treats of the excellence of Christianity as compared with philosophy and idolatry, is admirable.

Athanasius, 296.

Villemain says of him: "If he often contended on points of deep obscurity, his aim was to establish that religious unity of which he well understood the value and the power. He has justly been pronounced one of the greatest men of whom the Church can boast."-Eschb.

The best edition of his works is that of Montfaucon, Paris, 1698, 3 vols. folio.-Anthon.

St. Augustine, 354.

In his controversial works he enters deeply and with great sagacity into philosophical questions, while in his Confessions and Retractions he opens the inmost workings of his own mind.

Chrysostom, 354.

For overpowering popular eloquence Chrysostom had no equal among the fathers. His style is elevated, yet natural and clear. He transfuses his own glowing thoughts and emotions into all his hearers, seemingly without effort, and without the power of resistance.-Murdock.

Chrysostom's Golden Book on the Education of Children, London, 1559, 12mo.-Anthon.

(B.) MEDIEVAL.

Boethius, 455.

The most learned Latin philosopher of this period. His most celebrated work is "De Consolatione Philosophiæ." It is an imaginary conversation between the author and philosophy personified, who endeavours to console and soothe him in his afflictions. The topics of consolation are deduced from the tenets of Plato, Zeno, and Aristotle, but without any notice of the sources of consolation which are peculiar to the Christian system, which circumstance has led many to think him more of a Stoic than a Christian. It is partly in prose and partly in verse.-Penny Enc. 8vo, London, 1785, translated.

John of Damascus, 730.

Like Boethius of the West, he, in the East, forms a link which unites the ancient philosophy with that of the Middle Ages. He helped preserve a knowledge of Aristotelianism, and was also devoted to theology.

Erigena, 840.

He took up that remarkable system which has from time immemorial prevailed in some schools of the East, wherein all external phenomena, as well as all subordinate intellects, are considered as emanating from the Supreme Being, into whose essence they are hereafter to be absorbed. A treatise, written by him with great acuteness and subtlety, "De Divisione Naturæ," was published at Oxford by Dr. Gale, in 1681.— Enc. Am.

St. Anselm, 1033.

He originated the attempt, which was afterward renewed by Des Cartes, to constitute the true principle of all science, and which has been justly characterized as one of the boldest ever made in the philosophical world. In this point of view,

his works called Monologium and Prosologium are the most remarkable.

Roscellin, 1060.

He was the founder of Nominalism. This sect is memorable in the history of philosophy in the Middle Ages, since from them proceeded a spirit which opened the way to the higher philosophy of subsequent times.-Enc. Am.

Abelard, 1079.

There are few lives of literary men more interesting, or more diversified by success and adversity, by glory and humiliation, by the admiration of mankind and the persecution of enemies, nor from which more impressive lessons of moral prudence may be derived.—Hallam.

The most complete edition of his works was published at Paris, 1616, in 4to.

Peter Lombard, 1100.

His "Master of Sentences," a collection of the opinions of the Fathers upon the principal points of theology and philosophy, had a great influence on the prevailing studies of the learned, especially in the next and following ages.

John of Salisbury, 1110.

He attacked the vicious modes of instruction then current, and protested against a barren dialectics. His works contain, also, valuable materials for a history of scholasticism. Albertus Magnus, 13th century.

Besides theological learning, he was well versed in mechanics, natural history, and natural philosophy.—Enc. Am.

Bonaventura, 1221.

He has been praised for having avoided scholastic cavils and ambiguities in his style, and for having spoken the language of earnest faith and sincere piety.

His works have been collected in 13 vols. 4to, Venice, 1751, to which edition a well-written life of Bonaventura is affixed.-Penny Enc.

Thomas Aquinas, 1227.

The rival, but also the friend of Bonaventura. His writings all bear the impress of a powerful mind. His Summa Theologica, his Commentaries on Aristotle, and various special treatises, are full of philosophical speculation.