and irrational, &c. are conjoined. Thus Christ says of himself, "I am the true vine," " the living bread;"—here is a conjunction of animate and inanimate. "Wisdom

crieth without;"-crieth expresses the act of a living agent, and is applied to wisdom, which is inanimate, by a figure of speech called personification. Anger burns or is kindled;—here is a conjunction of anger, an incorporeal object, with burns, which expresses the state of a corporeal or material object. Whenever an expression would be manifestly false or absurd, if understood literally, and makes a good sense if understood figuratively, we are to consider it figurative. Thus Christ said of the sacramental bread, "This is my body." This declaration, if understood literally, would be false and absurd. No logic could make out that bread is identical with a living human body; and such was the body of Christ when he made the declaration referred to. But if we consider bread as being a figurative representation of the Redeemer's body, the sense of the passage is good, agreeing both with the subject and context. We therefore conclude that it is figurative; and so of like expressions generally.

3. A word is frequently known to be used in a figurative sense, by a definitive clause, expressing in a literal sense the idea intended to be conveyed by the figure. As in the sentence, “We being dead in trespasses and sins," &c.-dead is known to be used in a figurative sense, by the phrase in trespasses and sins, which indicates literally the kind of death intended, and shews the word to be used in a figurative and not in its literal sense. 4. When different words, and those of different significations, are applied to the same subject, though that subject is an unknown one, we may justly infer that some of them at least are to be understood figuratively. Thus the change that takes place in becoming a Christian, is called being born again, being converted, renewed after the image of God, &c.; some of which must of course be figurative representations of that change.

5. When the same words, or those of similar import, are every where in the Bible used in reference to any

particular subject, though that subject is otherwise an unknown one, we may infer that they are to be interpreted literally. Thus the future punishment of the wicked is represented by various terms and forms of expression, all of which unequivocally denote suffering; -we therefore infer that punishment will literally be inflicted. The doctrine of the resurrection of the body at the last day stands on a foundation equally firm. It is referred to in various passages of Scripture, and by various modes of expression; but all indicating the same thing, and expressing substantially the same idea. Thus resurrection of the dead-of the body-being quickened or made alive, are expressions constantly used, in reference to an event to take place at the end of the world.

This rule is one of very general application, and of great practical importance in relation to such subjects as do not come within the sphere of our observation, and for a knowledge of which we are indebted solely to divine revelation.

5. HOW TO ASCERTAIN THE LITERAL MEANING

OF WORDS.

1. The meaning of words is determined by custom and general usage, as we have already had occasion to remark. As far as any individual departs from this usage in the expression of his ideas, his communication becomes obscure, and his language incorrect. No intelligent writer intentionally departs from it without what he supposes to be good reason for doing so, and explicitly pointing out how far he does it.

The correct and true meaning of words as they are generally understood by those who use them, is that which every intelligent writer expects to be understood as expressing. This he aims to express, and to this he endeavours to adhere. In relation to this subject the sacred writers are to be placed at least on an equality with others. They have not used language with less accuracy and propriety than intelligent uninspired writers. 2. The first and simplest means of ascertaining the

meaning of words is by definition. In giving the definition of a word, a man gives his individual testimony in favour of that meaning, or those meanings which he assigns, being the true meaning or meanings of the words. Such testimony is to be estimated like all other testimony, and is more or less valuable, according to the character of the witness. When a writer defines his own terms, they are of course to be interpreted in his writings according to his definition of them, unless he manifestly departs from it. Writers generally define such terms as they think will not be well understood by those for whom their works are designed, without definitions.

Dictionaries are highly useful to the student and interpreter, in exhibiting the principal meanings of words as they were understood by their respective authors. They ought to be constantly consulted as repositories of valuable knowledge on this subject.

3. The nature of the subject treated of, affords very essential service in limiting and defining the meaning of words. When words have different meanings, we generally infer from the nature of the subject, which of those meanings is to be taken in any particular passage. The facility with which we do this is truly remarkable, and affords us just occasion for wonder and admiration. Notwithstanding that most of the words we use have different meanings, yet we discover almost intuitively, which of the meanings is intended in any particular application of them. So that language may be considered almost as definite, as if every word had its own definite signification and no other. The definiteness and precision of language, taken in connection with the indefiniteness of meaning belonging to single words, may well be accounted among the wonders of literature.

4. Words are often illustrated and explained by examples, where there is no logical definition, and where the nature of the subject would not be sufficiently clear to afford a clue to the true meaning. Examples illustrative of the meaning of words, are common in almost every kind of writing, and deserve the particular attention of every student and interpreter. Thus we learn the

meaning of the word prayer as much from the examples of the performance of this duty recorded in the Bible, as from any other source. The same may be said of piety, faith, repentance, and many other of the most important terms, in which the Divine will is treasured up, and by which it is made known to men.

5. A comparison of parallel passages, together with at careful attention to the context, is another and effectual means of eliciting the true meaning of some words, which could not be otherwise ascertained. Those passages of the sacred Scriptures are parallel, which manifestly relate to the same subject and express similar sentiments. The same sentiment may be expressed in different terms. in two or more passages, but more definitely and perspicuously in some passages than in others. The same fact is sometimes related in two or more different passages, and related more fully in some than in others. A comparison of parallel passages is one of the most effectual means of acquiring an accurate and extensive knowledge of the precise and accurate meaning of many of those words, by which the doctrines and duties of religion are taught.

The parallel passages on prayer are those which relate to the subject of prayer, and explain and enforce the duty; those on the day of final judgment, are those which relate to the subject of a final judgment, and describe the nature and circumstances of it, &c.

Care ought to be taken to determine whether the passages which we examine as parallel, are truly so or not. There may be a mere verbal parallelism, when the subjects treated of are entirely different. In this way multitudes suffer themselves to be bewildered and deceived. By considering passages of Scripture which relate to the final judgment, parallel to those which relate to the infliction of temporal judgments, multitudes have endeavoured to explain away the doctrine of a final judgment, to the very great detriment of religion. So by considering passages of Scripture which relate to the subject of the future punishment of the wicked, parallel to those which relate to the infliction of temporal punishment,

many have endeavoured to explain that doctrine away. In both the above cases parallelism has been assumed when it does not really exist, and the premises being incorrect it is not strange that the conclusion should be false.

6. HOW TO ASCERTAIN THE FIGURATIVE MEANING

OF WORDS.

*

1. General usage in regard to figurative expressions, is the general rule, according to which they are to be interpreted. This usage is remarkably uniform, both in sacred and profane writers, in regard to a large portion of figurative language.

In the sacred Scriptures light is universally an emblem of prosperity and happiness, and sometimes of knowledge and virtue. Darkness represents misery, ignorance, and sin. Fire has two figurative meanings. It is a common emblem of God's consuming wrath, and also of the Holy Spirit's purifying influences. These meanings, however, are always kept distinct in the sacred volume. The "refiner's fire," through which the pious are represented as passing, and the "baptism of the Holy Ghost and of fire," are as distinct and different from "the lake of fire and brimstone, the place where the worm dieth not and the fire is not quenched," as heaven is from hell, or as happiness is from misery.

The meaning of the Scripture figurative language is as determinate and precise, as that of any other part of the sacred volume; and is rendered so, by the uniformity of the sacred writers in using particular figurative expressions to denote and illustrate particular ideas and those only. This uniformity in the use of figurative language is founded in the nature of things, and is common to all languages and all writers.

2. Where figurative expressions are of double or doubtful meaning, they must be interpreted according to

*

See Beckhaus on the Tropical Language of New Test.,-BIBI. CAL CABINET, Vol. II. p. 296.