Order. 6. Gemitores, Cooers: Pigeons. 7. Deglubitores, Huskers, or thick-billed granivorous birds, as Finches, Buntings, Larks. 8. Vagatores, Wanderers, as Crows and Starlings. 9. Cantatores, Songsters, as Thrushes, Warblers, Wrens. 10. Scansores, Climbers, as Woodpeckers. 11. Reptatores, Creepers, as Creepers and Nuthatchers. SECTION III. AVES GRALLATORIÆ. WADING BIRDS. 12. Palpatores, Gropers, as Rails, Gallinules, Coots. 13. Cursitores, Runners, as Plovers. 14. Exploratores, Probers, as Snipes and Curlews. 15. Expectatores, Watchers, as Herons. SECTION IV. AVES NATATORIÆ. SWIMMING BIRDS. 16. Cribratores, Sifters, as Geese and Ducks. 17. Urinatores, Divers, as Grebes, Divers, Auks, and Guille mots. 18. Mersatores, or Plungers, as Gannets, Gulls, Terns. 19. Spoliatores, or Robbers, as the Jagers. Each of these orders contains several families, under which the genera are arranged. The species of each family may be disposed in a circular manner, or parallel to each other, or in various ways; and many of the families may be viewed as representing each other in their several stations. Thus, the Rasores or Scrapers are analogous to the Cribratores or Sifters, as well as to the Palpatores or Gropers; and the Raptores of the first section are represented by the Vagatores of the second, the Serpent-eaters of the third, and the Spoliatores of the fourth. All the genera, in fact, may casily be arranged in a circle, and that so as to preserve several of their affinities. It is not, therefore, of much importance whether we commence our descriptions with one class or another; and, for various reasons, I prefer beginning with the Rasores, the first order of the Terrestrial Birds. In describing the birds of a very small portion of the globe, it is impossible to exhibit the relations of the different species and genera, without entering upon considerations the development of which would occupy more space than could with propriety be devoted to it. I do not, therefore, profess to add a new system to the many already in partial use, or that have passed away like their authors. Those of Linnæus, Latham, Blumenbach, Illiger, Vieillot, Temminck, and Cuvier, may all be said to be extinct, for none of these worthies can muster half a dozen followers at the present day. Indeed their systems were never generally adopted even in a single country of Europe. Methods spring up and die like mushrooms, and for the same reason: they are composed of flimsy and unsubstantial materials, easily elaborated; and having no solid frame to give them stability, they fall suddenly into decay, withered by the breath of criticism, which but serves to invigorate that which is possessed of real stamina. My object, therefore, in offering the above sketch, is merely to disclose the order which I conceive to be best adapted for the present work. The first section, or the Aërial Birds, I reserve for a separate volume, both because I have recently published a short account of the Rapacious species, which is not yet out of print, and because I am desirous of obtaining additional information respecting them before giving their extended history to the public. The second section, or that of the Terrestrial Birds, affords the materials for the present volume, in which are described the orders Rasores, Gemitores, Deglubitores, and Vagatores; the Scrapers, Cooers, Huskers, and Wanderers; or the Gallinaceous Birds, Pigeons, Conirostral or Granivorous Birds, and Omnivorous Birds, of authors. The nomenclature and sectioning are matters on which I cannot expect that readers should all with me. my agree I have endeavoured to render them as consistent with nature as I could; but, after all, they must ever be in some measure arbitrarily dealt with. REMARKS ON THE STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. BIRDS constitute the second class of Vertebrate Animals, and are characterized by having an internal skeleton; a twofold, that is, a general, and a pulmonic, circulation; as well as a double respiration, the air passing beyond their lungs into cells distributed through various parts of the body, and even into some of the bones; by being warm-blooded, oviparous, furnished with four extremities or limbs, of which the two anterior are converted into wings; and by having their skin covered with feathers. The last circumstance is peculiarly distinctive of the class. They never approach in magnitude to many species of Mammalia, Reptiles, and Fishes; and, being organized for flying, are proportionally lighter than animals of equal dimensions belonging to those classes. Their specific gravity, in fact, is less than that of water, so that they all float on the surface of that element, and many of them are adapted for swimming upon it, or for plunging or diving into it. By far the greater number, however, are confined to the air, most of them obtaining their food by walking on the ground or on trees, while a few procure their prey on wing, and are incapable of walking without difficulty. Although it is unnecessary to enter here into a minute explanation of all the organs of birds, I consider it expedient to describe as much of their structure as may enable the reader not previously acquainted with their anatomy to follow me through the various details which I shall have to present. I will therefore give an outline of the osseous, digestive, and dermal systems, accompanied by illustrative figures. The Skeleton of birds is composed nearly of the same parts as that of the Mammalia, but with modifications suited to the peculiarities of their kind of life. As in man, it is divided into the head, the neck, the trunk, the anterior, and the posterior extremities. The Head, which is generally small, is at an early age com posed of several distinct bones, which, however, soon unite, so that all traces of their sutures become obliterated. In the skull properly so called, or cranium, there are two frontal, two parietal, two temporal bones, with an occipital, a sphenoid, and an ethmoid. The cavity formed by these bones is in some measure divided into two portions, of which the anterior contains the cerebrum, while in the posterior are lodged the cerebellum, the optic lobes, and the medulla oblongata. The face is composed of the nasal, intermaxillary, malar, lachrymal, superior maxillary, and palatal bones, with the vomer, and the lower maxillary bone. The upper jaw, composed of all the bones mentioned except the last, is united at its base with the frontal, the ethmoid, and the temporal bones, but in such a manner as generally to allow a considerable degree of motion, which is not however effected by joints properly so called, but by the elasticity of the parts. Viewed from beneath, it presents two outer or anterior, and two posterior, slender branches, which are articulated behind to a bone of irregular, somewhat square form, named the tympanic bone, or os quadratum, which is itself articulated to the temporal bone, and forms the anterior edge of the cavity of the ear, having the membrane of the tympanum attached to its posterior margin. This arrangement, owing to the motion given to the tympanic bone, and the elasticity of the parts at the junction of the frontal and nasal bones, allows the upper mandible a degree of motion varying in the different families. The lower jaw of an adult bird is formed of a single bone, having the sides generally thin and nearly vertical, and articulated to the tympanic bone. terior or basilar; the posterior, spinous, or superior; and the two lateral or condyloid. The temporal bone is composed of the petrous portion, b, containing the ear; the squamous portion, c; to which is articulated the tympanic portion, or os quadratum, d. The parietal bone, e, intervenes between the occipital and the frontal. The latter, f, besides forming the anterior part of the covering of the brain, also constitutes the upper edge of the orbit or cavity in which the eye is lodged, its posterior process, g, bounding it behind, while its antorbital process, h, margins it before, and is connected with the lachrymal bones. The lower part of the orbit is thus left incomplete, as it is in various degrees in all birds, excepting some of the parrots. The sphenoid bone is originally composed of several distinct parts: a basilar portion, united to that of the occipital bone; two orbital plates, i, constituting part of the orbits and of their septum; two cranial plates, j, corresponding to the wings, and forming the posterior part of the orbits; and two pterygoid or interarticular portions, k, which are articulated posteriorly to the tympanic bones. The ethmoid bone forms the anterior portion of the septum of the orbits, 7, and separates them from the cavity of the nose. Excepting the os quadratum, d, and the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone, k, these bones are all anchylosed or united in the Raven and other Crows, as is indeed the case with most adult birds. The Face is primarily divided into the upper jaw, m, formed of a number of bones, and the lower jaw, n, formed of a single bone. The nasal bones, o, occupy the basal part of the upper jaw, and bend obliquely downwards behind the nasal cavity. The lachrymal bones, p, are articulated with the antorbital process of the frontal bone, h, the nasal, o, and the malar bones. The latter, q, are here articulated posteriorly with the lachrymal bones, anteriorly and above with the nasal, and below with the long slender process of the upper maxillary. The intermaxillary bones, r, form the greater part of the upper mandible, extending from its extremity along the ridge and sides, and are united with the superior maxillary bones. The latter, s, are generally small. They send a long slender process, t, backwards, along the edge of the upper mandible, to be articulated to the tympanic bone, d. This process is by some considered as analogous to the zygomatic arch, and |