Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function, and Transformation

activity analysis anatomist anatomy anthropology behavior Bernard Berzelius biologists biology body carbon causal cell theory cellular century's Charles Lyell chemical chemistry chemists claimed Claude Bernard combustion comparative method complex Comte Comte's conception conclusion course creation creature critical Darwinian demonstration developmental diversity Durkheim eighteenth century elements embryology embryonic energy Epigenesis Ernst Ernst Haeckel essential evidence evolution evolutionary change existence experimental fact foodstuffs fossil function fundamental geology German heredity historical explanation history of biology human idea individual development interest investigation Lamarck Liebig living mankind matter means ment metaphysical microscopical motion natural history natural selection naturalist nature-philosophers nineteenth century numerous objective offered organism oxygen paleontology phenomena philosophers physical physiological plants and animals principles problem progress recapitulation doctrine reductionists regard respiration respiratory scientific social Darwinian social Darwinism society sociology species species problem Spencer structure substances Theodor Schwann thought tion tissues transformation truly ultimate uniformitarianism variation vital force vitalistic