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Facts having been collected, examined, and classified, we must endeavor to discover the form of a given object, i. e., its ultimate essence; e. g., in answer to the question, What is heat? What is its essence? Thus Bacon erroneously supposes that the human mind can discover what two centuries of profound investigation since his time have in no one instance succeeded in revealing, and what in all probability lies entirely beyond the apprehension of human faculties.

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is the method in use; but the other raises | Bacon displays an eminently practical spirit. axioms from sense and particulars by a con- He does not enter into lengthy discussions tinued and gradual ascent, till at last it arrives about the principle and the object of moral at the most general axioms, which is the true approbation, but holds it to be the main way, but hitherto untried.” function of moral science to discover the influence which customs, habits, modes of education, mental pursuits, &c., exert upon human character, and thus to lay down the best mode of preserving and restoring moral health. On these topics, as Stewart remarks, "he has enlarged more ably and more usefully than any writer since Aristotle." Under this head we may mention the most popular of all his works, known under the title of "Essays." These essays are characterized by an amazing pregnancy and originality of thought; an admirable blending of ingenuity and fancy with a wisdom which, as furnishing sage suggestions for the guidance of life, comes home to men's business and bosoms;" a rare combination of solidity and brilliancy; a style which, while untainted by mere verbal conceits, is incomparably striking and brilliant, richly colored with metaphors and analogies. analogies. The whole is pervaded by a sagacious and penetrating, a generous and catholic spirit. In illustration of these remarks, we shall quote the first part of his essay on "Studies.”

Two other subjects of investigation are the latens processus (latent process) and the latens schematismus (latent schematism). By the latent process, Bacon seems to mean what has since been termed the law of continuity, according to which quantities which change their magnitude or position, do so by passing through all the intermediate magnitudes or positions, till the change is completed; e. g., in the firing of a cannon, the series of events between the application of the match and the expulsion of the ball is a latent process, which can now be pretty accurately traced. The latent schematism of bodies is the internal structure and arrangement_of their parts. "A proneness," remarks Dr. Hoppus, "to form boundless expectations as to what human power might effect, and, in the very infancy of practical science, to look for achievements higher than we can, even in its more advanced age, venture to hope for, is one of the most remarkable features in the elevated and daring genius of this great man."

The question has often been raised and discussed-Did Bacon intend and deem it possible that his inductive method should be applied to metaphysics and moral subjects? An affirmative answer is at once supplied by his own express declarations, that his method is applicable to logic, ethics, politics, and metaphysics. On the other hand, it was but to a trifling extent that he applied his principles and rules to moral and metaphysical subjects, and also the entire structure of the "Novum Organum" is more especially suited to physical investigations. Nor, indeed, can it be denied that the inductive method has peculiar advantages in physical inquiries. For a full and able discussion of this point we refer our readers to Hallam's "Literature of rope," vol. ii. p. 415, &c.

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Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament is in discourse; and for ability is in the judgment and disposition of business; for expert men can execute, and perhaps judge, of particulars, one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and marshalling of affairs, come but from those that are learned. To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to to use them too much for ornament is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules is the humor of a scholar. They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience; for natural abilities study; and studies themselves do give forth direcare like natural plants-they need pruning by tions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use: but that is a wisdom without them and above them, won by

observation. Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books, also, may be read by deEu-puty, and extracts made of them by others: but that would be only in the less important arguments and the meaner sort of books; else, distilled books are, like common distilled waters,

In his disquisitions on ethical subjects

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flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; con- | de Comines, Machiavel, Davila, Hume, we ference a ready man; and writing an exact man; shall, I think, find that one man may almost and, therefore, if a man write little, he had need be compared with all of these together." have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit; and if he read little, he Craik's opinion of the History is, that it is had need have much cunning to seem to know one of the most animated, graphic, and that he doth not. Histories make men wise; altogether felicitous historical pieces in the poets, witty; the mathematics, subtile; natural language ;" and that it "still remains, perphilosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rheto- haps, unsurpassed in our literature in all the ric, able to contend. highest qualities of historical composition, in luminous and lively narrative, in expressive portraiture, in a vein of profound political sagacity, above all, in skill and power of writing.

We shall now inquire how far the Baconian Induction had been anticipated by previous philosophers, and how far it was original. The author of an article in the

As a theologian, Bacon possessed an intimate acquaintance with the Bible, and was a believer in the truth of Christianity. He also devoted a considerable portion of his time to theological works, but abstained from entering into any of those speculative controversies on subtle points of divinity, which at that time engaged so much public attention throughout the whole of Europe." Asiatic Researches" (vol. viii. pp.. 89, We cannot refrain from quoting his noble protest against atheism :-"I had rather believe all the fables in the Legend, and the Talmud, and the Alcoran, than that this universal frame is without a mind. While the mind of man looketh at second causes scattered, it may sometimes rest in them, and go no further; but when it beholdeth the chain of them confederate and linked together, it must needs fly to Providence and Deity."

The chief specimen which we possess of Bacon's talents as a historian is to be found in his "History of Henry VII.," concerning the merits of which, very opposite opinions have been expressed. The limits of the present article compel us to content ourselves with adducing the judgments of Hallam and Craik. The former writer remarks-"It is the first instance in our language of the application of philosophy to reasoning on public events in the manner of the ancients and the Italians. Praise upon Henry is too largely bestowed; but it was in the nature of Bacon to admire too much a crafty and selfish policy; and he thought, also, no doubt, that so near an ancestor of his own sovereign should not be treated with severe impartiality. "The History of Henry VII.," admirable as many passages are, seems to be written rather too ambitiously, and with too great an absence of simplicity." And in another passage, speaking of the sixth, seventh, and eighth books De Augmentis," the "Essays," and also of "The History of Henry VII.," he observes," If we compare (these)

with the rhe toric, ethics, and politics of Aristotle, or with the historians most celebrated for their deep insight into civil society and human character, with Thucydides, Tacitus, Philip

90, Lond. edit.) asserts:-I. "That the mode of reasoning by induction, illustrated and improved by the great Lord Verulam, in his "Novum Organum," and generally considered as the cause of the rapid progress of science in later times, was perfectly known to Aristotle, and was distinctly delineated by him, as a method of investigation that leads to certainty or truth; and II. That Aristotle was likewise perfectly acquainted, not merely with the form of induction, but with the proper materials to be employed in carrying it on-facts and experiments. We are, therefore, led to conclude that all the blame of confining the human mind for so long a time in chains by the force of syllogism, cannot be fairly imputed to Aristotle; nor all the merit of enlarging it, and setting it free, ascribed to Lord Verulam." (Ib. pp. 89, 90.) After careful investigation of this point, we come to the following conclusion:-It cannot be denied that Aristotle clearly distinguished induction as an inference from the particular to the universal, from deduction as an inference from the universal to the particular. But he had no conception of the possibility of a valid process of arriving at a universal truth, except by an examination of all the particulars (árávτwv dτóμwv, - enumerationem per simplicem.) Bacon, on the other hand, aimed at discovering how, by a careful examination of the relative values of a limited number of particulars, we may, with certainty, attain to a universal truth. Moreover, Aristotle gave but a very meager analysis of induction, and did not perceive how the uniformity of the laws of nature justifies us in dispensing with the necessity of examining all the particulars. Bacon, on the contrary, endeavored to show how far the assumption

of that uniformity may take the place of a complete investigation of individual pheno

mena.

We shall now take up a point which we postponed in the earlier part of our articleviz, the relation of Bacon to Descartes. "Descartes," says Cousin, "has established in France precisely the same method which England has been eager to attribute exclusively to Bacon." Now, we readily admit that Descartes, as well as Bacon, adopted analysis as the main instrument in philosophical investigation; the former applied it to thought, the latter to nature. What, however, were their views concerning the relative position of induction and deduction? Here a fundamental difference presents itself. Ba

it is true, admits the necessity of a pro visional "anticipation" of nature as a guide in observation and experiment; and Descartes maintains the value of experiments in verifying the truths of deduction. But Bacon assigns to induction, Descartes to deduction, the first place as to order and importance.

Macaulay has asserted that the merit of Bacon's scientific labors consists, not in his rules for the inductive process, but in his supplying motives for the careful performance of that process. We venture to maintain, on the contrary, that motives had already been furnished, nay, that the entire age was under the potent influence of these motives, but that no one before Bacon discovered those rules which should direct the awakened mental energy into a well-planned channel. Again, Macaulay has affirmed that the only part of the inductive process which admits of rules, has been and is performed perfectly well by all mankind without such rules; and that, therefore, Bacon's rules are superfluous and useless. Here, however, this distinguished writer plainly confounds induction, as a simple, every-day inference, with the inductive method a lengthy and complex train of reasoning; these two Bacon repeatedly distinguishes. And further, however little a mind that has studied Bacon's rules may act in conscious and designed accordance with them, yet it will carry with it into all its researches the benefit of that general educational influence, which patient reflection on those rules infallibly exerts. Moreover, as Dr. Whewell observes, "The truly remarkable circumstance is to find this (i. e., Bacon's) recommendation of a continuous advance from observation by limited steps, through successive gradations of generality, given at a time when speculative men in general had only just begun to perceive

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that they must begin their course from experience in some way or other.

Valid objections to Bacon's philosophical merits may, we admit, be founded upon his ignorance of mathematics, and his inadequate estimate of their utility; his lack of that "practical wisdom which results from a long acquaintance with the actual processes of philosophical research;" and his exaggerated opinion of the value of his new organ," which, as he supposed, would bring all minds to nearly the same level, and supersede the advantages of natural genius.

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The early fame of Bacon's writings may be gathered from the fact that in 1623, the University of Oxford addressed him as "a mighty Hercules," as having advanced the pillars of science: at Cambridge, his philosophy soon made great progress; the Institution of the Royal Society filled England with his fame; the writings of Boyle, Hooke, and Locke, exhibited the deep impress of the Baconian method; the genius of Newton found the ground cleared, and the plan sketched for the exercise of its mighty energies; and within half a century the reviver of true philosophy won high applause throughout France, Italy, Holland, and Germany.

We

We conclude with a general estimate of Bacon's mental and moral character. have already spoken to some extent of his mental abilities. We add the following supplementary remarks: His intellect was marked rather by a wide-ranging view of the nature of science in general than by a deep acquaintance with the minutiae of any particular science. Though he was neither a mathematician, nor an astronomer, nor a chemist, nor a physiologist, yet he had a thorough insight into those essential attributes which constitute each of these a science, and the relative positions which each ought to occupy in the special applications of the general principles of scientific inquiry. Whilst he made no discoveries himself, he taught the true method by which discoveries are made. In all his investigations, he was eminently practical, carefully shunning abstruse speculations and methaphysical subtleties. We heartily subscribe to Hallam's judgment, "No books prior to those of Lord Bacon carried mankind so far on the road to truth; none have obtained so thorough a triumph over arrogant usurpation without seeking to substitute another; and he may be compared to those liberators of nations who have given them laws by which they might govern themselves, and retained no homage but their gratitude.

Bacon's moral character, with its dark shades and lamentable defects, has been faithfully and graphically depicted by the masterly pen of Macaulay:"The moral qualities of Bacon were not of a high order. We do not say that he was a bad man. He was not inhuman or tyrannical. He bore with meekness his high civil honors, and the far higher honors gained by his intellect. He was very seldom, if ever, provoked into treat ing any person with malignity and insolence. No man more readily held up the left cheek to those who had smitten the right. No man was more expert at the soft answer which turneth away wrath. He was never accused of intemperance in his pleasures. His even temper, his flowing courtesy, the general respectability of his demeanor, made a favorable impression on those who saw him in situations which do not severely try the principles. His faults were we write it with pain -- coldness of heart and meanness of spirit. He seems to have been incapable of feeling strong affection, of facing great dangers, of making great sacrifices. His desires

we

were set on things below. Had his civil
ends continued to be moderate
should not then be compelled to regard his
character with mingled contempt and admi-
ration-with mingled aversion and gratitude.
We should not then regret that there should
be so many proofs of the narrowness and sel-
fishness of a heart, the benevolence of which
was yet large enough to take in all races and
all ages. We should not then have to blush
for the disingenuousness of the most devoted
worshipper of speculative truth-for the ser-
vility of the boldest champion of intellectual
freedom."

Let the life of Bacon engrave upon the reader's heart the warning of sacred writ— "Let not the wise man glory in his wisdom, neither let the mighty man glory in his might; let not the rich man glory in bis riches; but let him that glorieth, glory in this, that he understandeth and knoweth me, that I am the Lord, which exercise lovingkindness, judgment and righteousness in the earth; for in these things I delight, saith the Lord."

From the Quarterly Review.

CHURCH BELLS.*

THERE is abundance of literary evidence | ringing, which is peculiarly an English acto show that in by-gone times the history complishment. In other countries there is and office of the bell engaged the attention no attempt at a musical peal, and the only of the learned. Mr. Ellacombe enumerates object is to produce the utmost possible noise nearly forty distinct treatises of foreign ori- by a chance, irregular clanging. Such was gin, ranging from 1495 to the present cen- formerly among ourselves the enthusiasm of tury. Of these the best known is the work the educated classes on the subject, that, of Magius, "De Tintinnabulis." The author, in the reign of Queen Mary, Dr. Tresham an Italian, was a civil judge in the Venetian thought there was no surer method of enticservice of Candia, when besieged in 1571 by ing the students at Oxford to mass than by the Turks. He was taken prisoner, and promising to make the University peal the amused his captivity by writing the treatise finest in England. The revived interest in which has preserved his name. His occupa- all ecclesiastical studies has extended itself to tion could gain him no favor in a land where bells; and the instructive work of Mr. Gatty the bell was considered the symbol of sinful and the researches of Mr. Ellacombe are worinfidelity, and he was finally beheaded by thy fruits of this newly awakened spirit. order of a pasha. The productions of our native pens are mostly confined to the art of

1. The Bell: its Origin, History, and uses. By the Rev. Alfred Gatty. London. 1848.

2. Paper on Bells with Illustrations. By the Rev. H. T. Ellacombe, in Report of Bristol Architeetura! Society, 1850.

We are accustomed, to use the expression of Mr. Gatty, "to hear the bell speak for itself." From youth to age the sound is sent forth through crowded streets, or floats with sweetest melody above the quiet fields. It gives a tongue to time, which would otherwise pass over our heads as silently as the

clouds, and lends a warning to its perpetual | ployed in camps and garrisons, were hung on flight. It is the voice of rejoicing at festivals, triumphal cars, sounded in the fish-market of at christenings, at marriages, and of mourn- Athens, summoned guests to feasts, preceded ing at the departure of the soul. From every funeral processions, and were sometimes used church tower it summons the faithful of dis- in religious rites in the temples. Another tant valleys to the house of God; and when purpose to which they were put was to hang life is ended they sleep within the bell's deep them about the necks of malefactors on their sound. Its tone, therefore comes to be fraught way to execution, "lest," says Zonaras, “inwith memorial associations, and we know nocent persons should be defiled by touching what a throng of mental images of the past them." It is more likely that it was to draw can be aroused by the music of a peal of the gaze of the people upon the criminal, bells: and thus aggravate his punishment. From this Greek custom was derived (we are told) the Roman one of fixing a bell and a scourge to the emperor's chariot, that in the height of his power he might be admonished against pride, and be mindful of human misery. doubtful applications of bells among the RoIt is needless to recapitulate all the less

"O, what a preacher is the time-worn tower, Reading great sermons with its iron tongue!"

The bell has had a continuous existence

amongst civilized people from a very early time. For nearly fourteen centuries it has been employed by the church, and it was known to ancient nations for perhaps as many centuries before our era. Consecrated to Christian purposes, its sound has travelled with the light that has lighted the Gentiles; and, now that the gospel has penetrated to the most distant regions of the globe, there is

not, perhaps, a minute of time in which the melody of bells is not somewhere rising to wards Heaven, as—

"Earth with her thousand voices praises God."

For ages before the bell from its airy height in the old church tower announced its cognizance of human events, diminutive bells were in common use. An eastern patriarch in the twelfth century, quotes a writer who gravely avers that Tubal-Cain, the artificer in brass and iron, formed the sounding metal. into a rude kind of bell, and that Noah employed it to summon his ship carpenters to their work. Less theoretical historians may be well contented to begin with the golden bells mentioned in the Book of Exodus as attached to the vestment of the high priest in the Sanctuary, in the same way that they were appended to the royal costume amongst the ancient Persians; or with those small bronze bells, apparently intended for horse and chariot furniture, of which a great number were found by Mr. Layard in a chamber of the palace of Nimroud. On being analyzed, the curious fact was discovered that they contain one part of tin to ten parts of copper; and if, as Mr. Layard remarks, the tin was obtained, as probably was the case, from Phoenicia, it may actually have been exported nearly three thousand years ago from the British isles.

Amongst the Greeks hand-bells were em

mans.

at public places was announced by it, and The hour of bathing and of business with the imperfect means possessed by the ancients of measuring time, it must have been The wealthier Romans had them in domestic a far more important signal than at present. Magius, writing about 1570, "as the houseuse to assemble their families, "just," says hold of nobles and cardinals at Rome are summoned to dinner and supper by a bell hung in the highest part of the building, so that it may not only be heard by the inmates, but by those who are without." Something larger than the hand-bell would appear to have been common about the same period in English mansions, to judge from the expression in Macbeth

"Go bid thy mistress, when my drink is ready, She strike upon the bell."

But in the reign of Elizabeth the horn still hung outside the gate, and did much of the duty which afterwards devolved upon bells. In the court at Penshurst there is a bell of considerable size, suspended from a wooden frame, with the inscription, "Robert, Earl of Leicester, at Penshurst, 1649." The horn had by this time been quite superseded. The disuse of the hand-bell was one of the many visible signs of the downfall of the old aristocratic system-an indication that the troop of servants had ceased to be "in waiting." Few persons are aware how modern is the present practice of domestic bell-hanging; for no trace of it has been discovered in the old mansions of our nobility, even so late as the reign of Queen Anne. A correspondent of the Builder states that when he was taken over Belton Hall by Lord Brownlow, about forty years ago, his lordship pointed out two

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