title VIII technician education programs. Clearly, the Nation's higher institutions need an additional kind of program-the stimulation of Federal funds as proposed in title II-C in order to provide college-level preparation of engineering and other semiprofessional technicians.

As you know, in many communities the 2-year college is attempting to absorb part of the flood of increased college registrations. There are 366 public junior colleges in the United States and its outlying territories. Florida hud 5 public junior colleges in 1956 and has 29 today. Massachusetts had none in 1959; today it has five. Oregon had 4 public junior colleges in 1962 and is planning 13 more. Several States plan to have three out of four of their lower division students in public junior colleges by 1975. California and Florida are already approaching this figure. Over the Nation, approximately one in every seven students in college today is in a junior college. Almost 90 percent of all junior college students are enrolled in public junior colleges. The operating cost of junior colleges is usually shared by the student, the school district, and the State.

The greatest single need of the public 2-year colleges is for physical facilities. The growth in their enrollments has been phenominal; yet many of these colleges were begun and continue in temporary or unsuitable buildings. Often, work has to be done in the late afternoon or early evening, using high school facilities. Expedients of this kind will never permit the 2-year institutions to attain their full potential of services. Although they may expand the school day to 12-14 hours, junior colleges cannot with their present facilities effectively serve 4 or 5 times the enrollment for which they were built. Additional funds are urgently needed to help build 25-30 new junior colleges a year for the next 10 years, to be placed according to State plans, and to enlarge facilities at many of those that have far exceeded their enrollment capacity. Such funds would be made available on a matching basis under title II-B.

The senior and junior colleges can, of course, be no stronger than the elementary and secondary schools which provide the foundation on which their educational programs must be built. In these foundation years our boys and girls acquire their basic attitudes and habits, develop their latent abilities, and generally shape their futures. other words, in our elementary and secondary schools we can afford only the very best for our children.

The major responsibility for these schools rests and must continue to rest with the States and local school districts. But, given the sharply varying capacity of the States to provide a measure of equal educational opportunities for our youth, and given the increasing mobility of our population, the national responsibility is obvious and growing more intense. The need for improving the quality of education is so clearly related to our national security, survival and economic growth that additional Federal resources must be committed to support of the schools.

We must raise the quality of our elementary and secondary schools and we must do this quickly. This can best be accomplished: (1) by making the teaching profession more attractive, by encouraging the recruitment and retention of teachers of the highest ability, by attracting more well-qualified teachers and by raising teacher morale,

and teaching overload; (2) by helping the States to build modern school buildings to replace school structures that have become obsolete, outmoded, hazardous to life and limb, and unsuited to presentday learning; (3) by supplying more modern materials and equipment; and (4) by encouraging research and experimentation in the teachinglearning process about which we have so much to discover.

Title III of S. 580 deals directly with the urgent problem of the quality of teaching in the Nation's schools. It would provide financial assistance and the stimulus of Federal support to improve the competence of present and future teachers and to promote the development and wider application of improved practices in the schools.

That Federal efforts can produce substantial improvement in the quality of elementary and secondary education has been demonstrated in the teaching of mathematics, science, and foreign languages. Since the National Defense Education Act foreign language institutes program was begun in 1959, more than 10,000 teachers have attended 218 language institutes conducted to strengthen and expand instruction in foreign languages in public and private elementary and secondary schools. Last year alone, the National Science Foundation sup ported more than 900 institutes for some 41,000 science and mathematics teachers, 90 percent of them from elementary and secondary schools.

These successful Federal programs are helping to improve the level of instruction in subjects directly and immediately affecting national security. I suggest that the strength of our Nation is derived no less from high achievement in the social sciences, the humanities and the fine arts than from excellence in the physical sciences. The teacher institutes proposal in title III-A would expand the proven institute programs of the National Defense Education Act, now limited to teachers of foreign languages and counseling and guidance personnel, to include teachers of English, humanities and social sciences, librarians and others whose part in the educational process has an immediate impact on the quality of our schools.

Progress is being made in improving the performance of teachers already on the job-especially in the sciences, guidance and counsel ing, mathematics and modern foreign languages. This must be accompanied by a comparable degree of Federal support to improve the preservice programs of teacher education in the colleges and universities. No measures to raise the quality of instruction in our schools can be more effective than measures to raise the standards, intellectual content and organization of the courses and curricula offered for the future teacher in the schools. The preparation and inservice training of teachers are also essential for equipping the instructional staff in our public school with the knowledge and technique for effective teaching. Many effective steps have been taken to improve the quality of teacher preparation, of course, but the task of improvement is typically impeded by lack of funds. The project grants provision of title III-B is intended to assist colleges and universities that wish to strengthen their programs of teacher preparation.

There are those who doubt that more funds for education mean better education. In some instances this scepti ism may be justified. But we now have excellent evidence of the close relationship between

one of the most extensive studies of student achievement and progress ever conducted, a half million high school students have been tested and will be followed through their academic and occupational endeavors. Among the preliminary conclusions of this study is the identification of factors that are highly correlated with school achievement, staying in school, and going on to college. The four factors that have the highest positive correlation with the above are (1) teacher salaries, (2) teacher experience, (3) number of books in the school library, and (4) per pupil expenditure on education. Where teachers' salaries are high and their experience long, where per pupil expenditure is high and library books numerous there student achievement tends to be high. In short, money does make the difference. Let us examine some facts about the first two indicators.

The average American public school teacher is approximately 41 years old and has taught more than 13 years. The median age of men in teaching is 33.6 years, while that of women is 45.5. The median of teaching experience for women is 14.2 years in contrast to 7.1 years for men. Clearly, our educational system does not hold men in teaching careers. Moreover, nearly 40 percent of male teachers held a second job, "moonlighting," outside the school system during the academic year. This evidence demonstrates their need for supplemental income. It points to a key factor in the loss of men from the teaching profession.

During 1962-63 the average annual salary of instructional staff in the public schools was $5,940. This represents a considerable increase over the average some years ago. It was, in fact 164 percent higher than the average salary in 1946. But let us examine that salary, or other evidences of teaching salaries, in relation to salaries of professionals in other fields.

The average salary of classroom teachers in 1960-61 in large urban centers was $6,096. A Department of Labor study in standard metropolitan statistical areas for the same year indicated that the average salary of persons in other professions requiring a college degree was considerably higher: chief accountants, $11,597; other accountants, $7,620; auditors, $7,701; attorneys, $12,144; chemists, $9,301; engineers, $9,797; job analysts, $7.932; and directors of personnel, $10,726. The average for these eight professions was $9,474, compared to $6,096 for teachers.

These, again, are average salaries. What prospects do at least some teachers have of reaching the salaries of chemists or lawyers? In 1960, approximately 230 of every 1,000 males in the "professional, managerial, and kindred worker" classification of the census had income in excess of $10,000. For teachers in the larger school systems (with higher salary schedules) the figure was only 15 of every 1,000 teachers in excess of $10,000 salary. In other words, male teachers had only one-fifteenth the chance to match the earning power of all professionals. At the present time, of the 557 school districts with an enrollment greater than 6,000, there are only 111 school districts that have salary schedules exceeding $9,000. In only 42 of these districts could a teacher earn as much as $10,000-42 contrasted with the nearly 30,000 operating school districts in the Nation. Moreover, for the school year 1961-62 fewer than 10 percent of all teachers in the United States earned salaries of $7,500 or more. This kind of salary pattern obviously will not recruit and retain able men teachers in the

Hindered by low maximum salaries and lack of financial incentive to keep teachers in their profession, we are also handicapped by some exceedingly low salaries for beginning teachers. In 1961-62, 6.4 percent of all teachers were paid less than $3,500; 28.2 percent of all teachers were paid less than $4,500, or more than $1,000 below starting salaries for other occupations requiring the baccalaureate degree. Obviously, too, such salaries are not competitive with those in occupations demanding similar levels of academic preparation.

The program of assistance to the States proposed in title IV-A of S. 580 would enable them, based on their own plans, to meet the initial costs of raising substantially the maximum salaries paid to well-qualified teachers with 10 or more years of teaching experience, and to raise both starting salaries and the shamefully low overall salaries received by teachers in economically disadvantaged school districts.

At this point, Mr. Chairman, I should like to enter into the record a table of national estimates of the numbers of teachers, salary increases, and total costs for the teacher salary provisions in title IV-A. We have estimated maximum involvement in each of the three options of the bill. The principal focus in the program is on raising maximum salaries. S. 580 would provide for Federal assistance in raising the salaries of experienced teachers by as much as 20 per-¡ cent. We estimate that 880,000 teachers, more than half of all teachers, would be eligible for such an increase and that the combined State-local-Federal effort in this program would raise their average salary of $6,500 by 15 percent. This would provide an average increase of nearly $1,000 over the 3-year period, with the Federal share costing $1 billion.

The two other options pinpoint acute deficiencies which require less expenditure but are of equal importance. Twenty-four thousand teachers have salaries that are substantially below the average of entrance salaries of the school districts in their States. We estimate a Federal expenditure of $8 million over 3 years, combined with State and local funds, would bring these teachers close to these average entrance salaries. Two hundred and forty thousand teachers are in school districts which have an average salary substantially below the average salary for their States. Federal expenditures of $96 million over 3 years, together with State and local funds, would raise the salaries of these teachers to a level close to the average of salaries in their States.

Each State could opt to use one or more of the three provisions or a combination of them. Estimates for each provision are made separate here and the three totals should not be added for a total cost because some teachers qualify under two options. In summary, we believe that at a cost of approximately $1 billion in the 3-year period the Federal Government can stimulate and assist the States and local districts to build more satisfactory salary provisions for recruiting and retaining teachers.

The school building situation is also a grievous one. State and local authorities have made heroic efforts to relieve the classroom shortage, but last September, according to official figures reported by the several States, the need for new classrooms totaled 121,200. These needs were divided about equally between the number required to accom

modate pupils in excess of normal capacity and the number needed to replace unsatisfactory or obsolete facilities.

Despite completion of an average of 71,000 classrooms annually during the past 5 years, little headway has been made in reducing the large backlog of need. Most of the newly completed rooms are used to meet the demand presented by steady increases in enrollment and to replace rooms that have been abandoned.

We now have an important new source of information about public elementary and secondary school classrooms; namely, the "National Inventory of School Facilities for Resource Evaluation and Damage Assessment." 15 This study, based not on a sample but on an actual survey of 95.7 percent of the Nation's school plants in the spring of 1962, produced objective data on such items as the age of buildings, fire-resistive ratings and overcrowding of classrooms. The study was conducted by the Office of Education, the Bureau of the Census, and State educational agencies in cooperation with the Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense, with the latter agency's financial support. The data collected will be used by the Office of Education and the President's Office of Emergency Planning for civil defense planning, resource evaluation and damage assessment in the event of nuclear attack or other national emergency.

The national inventory reveals that fully 235,000 of 1,478,000 American classrooms now in use were built before 1920 and of these, 51,000 are constructed of combustible materials. A grand total of 154,000 classrooms, including 103,000 built after 1920, are constructed of combustible materials. While we cannot assume that all combustible school buildings are hazardous, many of those a half century old, as well as some constructed in more recent years, have features and characteristics that endanger the lives of pupils enrolled in them. Thirty-seven thousand classrooms are located in either nonpermanent facilities, such as quonset huts and barracks, or are located off the regular school site.

The inventory provides these data on overcrowding in elementary and secondary schools:

10.6 million children attend school in buildings that have an average of 30 or more pupils per classroom;

22 million children attend school in buildings that have an average of 25 or more pupils per classroom;

To reduce overcrowding so that no school building would have an average of more than 30 pupils per classroom would require the construction of 66,000 classrooms;

To reduce overcrowding so that no elementary school building would have an average of more than 25 pupils per classroom and no secondary school building would have an average of more than 20 pupils per classroom (a higher quality ratio than 30 to the classroom) would require 272,000 classrooms.

All of these figures are based on 1962 enrollments. They do not reflect the need for additional classrooms to accommodate public elementary and secondary enrollments which we know will increase from 38.8 million in 1962 to some 45.2 million in 1970.

14 See pp. 2436-2439.