and ignorance. Cordova, as the seat of government, enjoyed a splendid period of two hundred years, reckoning from the middle of the eighth, to the middle of the tenth century. During that period, the Moorish portion of Spain boasted of a series of able princes, who gained the palm over all the nations of the West, both in arts and arms. It was only after the Moorish princes became luxurious and effeminate, that the nation was divided into a number of petty states, the principal of which, were Toledo, Cordova, Valentia, and Seville. To add to the divided state of Spain, both among the Moors and Christians, the country abounded with independent lords, who were warriors and champions by profession, making it their business to decide the quarrels of princes, or to volunteer their service and that of their vassals and attendants, on such occasions. Of this description of persons, termed knights-errant, the most distinguished was Rodrigo the Cid, who undertook to conquer the kingdom of New Castile, for his sovereign, Alphonso, king of Old Castile. Of the passion for knight errantry, however, it is proposed to speak in some other place. The contentions among the petty kingdoms of Spain need not detain us here, nor will it be expedient to dwell on the subsequent history of Spain, until the expulsion of the Moors, and the union of the whole country under one head, towards the conclusion of the fifteenth century. GERMANY. 13. Germany was known in ancient times, but it possessed no political importance till the era of Charlemagne. Previously, it was a rude and uncivilized country, and fluctuating in its government. Charlemagne may therefore be considered the reviver, if not the founder of the German empire. As a component part of his sovereignty, it has been already noticed so far down as the termination of the short reign, or rather usurpation, of Charles the Bald, of France, in 877. At that period, or perhaps a few years subsequent, it may be con sidered as having been effectually separated from France; and of all the dominions of Charlemagne, it has alone descended as an empire, and the representative of the sway which he once held over the nations of the West. The emperor of Germany is to this day, nominally at least, regarded as successor to the Emperors of Rome. § Germany, is said to be compounded of the Celtic word ger, brave, and man, signifying a warlike people. In ancient times, it comprehended all the country from the Baltic to Helvetia, and from the Rhine to the Vistula. The primitive inhabitants were most pro bably the Celts. But our information respecting Germany is scanty till the period of the Roman conquests in that country. Some ages before that time, the Goths, or Teutones, had migrated from the eastern part of Europe, along the Euxine, and established themselves on the shores of the Baltic, in Belgica, in the north of France, and the south of England; driving the original inhabitants into the northern and western regions.* When Rome was in the zenith of its power, Germany seems to have been divided into a number of independent principalities; but the inhabitants frequently united in the defence of their common liberty, and many bloody battles established their reputation for bravery, before they sunk under the power and policy of their invaders. At length, however, their country was reduced to a state of provincial subjection to the masters of the world; and upon the decline of the Western Empire of Rome, Germany became a prey to the Franks, and a considerable part of it remained under the dominion of earls and marquisses, till Charlemagne extended his power, both military and civil, over the whole empire. 14. The successor of Charles the Bald, was Charles III, called the Fat, after an interregnum of three years, 881 A. C. France was also under his sway at the same time, but he was soon afterwards deposed, and reduced to the greatest extremities. 15. In 887, Arnold, a natural son of Carloman; and nephew of Charles III., was proclaimed emperor of Germany. In the course of his reign, he defeated the Normans, took Rome, and was crowned there by the pope. His son Louis III., became his successor in 899, when only seven years of age. He was the last emperor descended in the male line from Charlemagne. § The reign of Louis is said to have been so much agitated by divisions between the lords and the bishops, that the young emperor died of grief. From the death of Louis, the empire became strictly elective, although, during the hereditary succession, the consent of the bishops and grandees had always been asked. 16. Conrad, duke of Franconia, was elected to fill the vacant throne in 912. He reigned seven years, during which time he quelled several revolts, and purchased peace of the barbarous Hungarians § The German grandees, who assembled at Worms, first offered the imperial diadem to Otho, duke of Saxony; but he declining it • Webster's Elements, &c. on account of his advanced age, persuaded them to apply the invitation to Conrad. The latter was of imperial descent by his mother, who was a daughter of Arnold. During his reign, the affairs of Germany were conducted with great prudence. 17. Upon the death of Conrad, the imperial dignity was bestowed on Henry I., surnamed the Fowler. This prince possessed great abilities, and introduced order and good government among his people. He built and embellished cities, reduced and conciliated many of the revolted lords, and conquered several tribes, as the Hungarians, Danes, Sclavonians, Bohemians, &c. He added Lorrain to his dominions. § Great as Henry was as a statesman, he manifested considerable zeal in propagating the Christian faith. A portion of the Vandals whom, he subdued, were, under his auspices, converted to this religion. He maintained no correspondence with the See of Rome, inasmuch as he had been consecrated by his own bishops. 18. His son Otho I., the great, was elected emperor, 936. He carried on the system of his father, in repressing the usurpations, of the lords. The conquest of Bohemia he began in 938, and finished in 950. In 961 he expelled Berenger II. and his son, Adalbert, from Italy, and caused himself to be crowned at Milan. The next year he was crowned by Pope John XII, and from that time he may be justly styled the emperor of the Romans. John afterwards revolted against him, but was soon deposed. Otho was the greatest prince of his time. After an active and commendable reign of thirty years, he died of an apoplectic disorder, in 972. His remains were interred in the cathedral church of Magdebourg, where his tomb may be still distinguished by a Latin inscription. § Otho owed his ascendancy in Italy to the disorders and crimes of the Papacy. Being invited into that country by the Pope and the Italian states, while they were contending with Berenger, he defeated the latter, and in return for the honours which the Pope conferred upon him, he confirmed the donations made to the Holy See by Pepin, Charlemagne, and Louis the Debonaire. The treachery of the Pope, (John XII.) obliged the emperor, in two or three successive instances, to visit Italy to compose the disorders that took place. The last time, he executed exemplary vengeance on his enemies, by hanging one half of the senate. Calling together the Lateran Council, he created a new Pope, and obtained from the assembled bishops, a solemn acknowledgment of the absolute right of the emperor to elect to the papacy, to give the investiture of the crown of Italy, and to nominate to all vacant bishoprics. The power of parental affection is strikingly exhibited in the fol lowing incident of Otho's life. Ludolphus, his son, had engaged in an unnatural revolt, which produced some serious hostilities, and occasioned the destruction of the city of Ratisbon; but after some time, the prince was made sensible of his error, and seized an opportunity while the emperor was hunting, to throw himself at his feet, and implore his clemency. "Have pity," said he, “upon your misguided child, who returns, like the prodigal son, to his father. If you permit him to live after having deserved death, he will assuredly repent of his folly and ingratitude, and the residue of his life shall be spent in the faithful discharge of filial duty." To this affecting appeal, Otho could reply only by a flood of tears and a paternal embrace; but when his agitation subsided, he assured the penitent of his warmest favour, and generously pardoned all his adherents. 19. Otho II., surnamed the Sanguinary, succeeded his father in 973, during whose reign, and that of several others, nothing of importance occurred. The names of the sovereigns who followed, down to Henry IV., are Otho III., St. Henry, Conrad II., and Henry III. They occupied a period of about eighty-three years. 20. Henry IV., the Great, succeeded his father at the age of six years, in 1056. He maintained a perpetual struggle with the popes, who insisted, that only the cardinals should elect the bishop of Rome. It was the lot of this emperor to experience a large share of papal insolence and tyranny. After a spirited contest with Pope Gregory VII., during which, the pope was twice his prisoner, and the emperor as often excommunicated and deposed, Henry fell, at last, the victim of ecclesiastical vengeance. At the instigation of Pope Urban II., the two sons of the emperor, Conrad and Henry, rebelled against their father, and to such an extremity was he reduced, through their barbarity and the pope's act of excommunication, that he could scarcely obtain the means of subsistence. His sufferings were terminated by death soon after the expiration of the present period, viz. in 1106, he having lived sixty-four years, and reigned forty-eight. Henry, in his youth, was vicious to an uncommon extent, and gave up himself freely to the indulgence of his passions. Misfortune, afterwards, abated his sensual excesses, if it did not thoroughly reform his character. He lived to acknowledge, that "the hand of the Lord had touched him." On the whole, he was endowed with many excellent qualities-courage, clemency, liberality, and, finally, with contrition and resignation. § The insolent treatment he received from the Pope, appears from the following. On one occasion, he set out for Italy, with his wife and infant, in order to humble himself at the foot of his holiness. On his arrival at the place where the Pope was, he was admitted within the outer gate, and informed that he must expect no favour until he should have fasted three days, standing from morning to evening, barefooted amid the snow, and then implored forgiveness for his offences. This penance was literally performed, notwithstanding the fatigue of the journey, and on the fourth day he received an absolution. The liberality of Henry's disposition was such, that he is said to have entertained the sick, the lame, and the blind, at his own table, and even to have lodged them in his own apartment, that he might be at hand to minister to their necessities. ENGLAND. Saxon Kings.-Norman Family. 21. England, which had been divided into seven distinct sovereignties during more than two centuries, became one entire kingdom, in 827 A. C. This change was effected by the prudence and valour of Egbert, prince of the West Saxons, who inhabited that part of the heptarchy, which was called Wessex and Sussex. The occasion which offered-for the conquest and union of the heptarchy, arose from the fact, that Egbert alone remained of the descendants of the Saxon conquerors of Britain; he, therefore, naturally looked to the dominion of the several states, as a sort of right; nor did he hesitate to claim it, also, with his sword. Success attended his undertaking, and four hundred years after the arrival of the Saxons in Britain, were they united into one powerful kingdom. 22 The English, who were so happily united under Egbert, enjoyed their prosperity but a short period. The piratical Danes, or Normans, who had molested the English coasts for fifty years, now became still more troublesome. During the life of Egbert, they twice attempted an invasion, but were repulsed with much slaughter. The death of Egbert, and the character of his successor, Ethelwolf, a prince of a very yielding disposition, encouraged the Danes to multiply their depredations. They were often |