development have tamed and civilized him. Throughout the animal world it is, generally speaking, the creatures that live in communities, such as most bees and wasps, ants, beavers, wolves, and elephants, that display the most wonderful instincts and sometimes the greatest intelligence, and the history of man's still incomplete civilization is to a great extent that of the widening of his community feeling, and the deepening of his sense of brotherhood. The family affections, the emotions of pleasure, pain, joy, sorrow, fear, suspicion, jealousy, the qualities of courage or timidity are all common to man and the more highly organized animals. Outside these all the higher developments of the human mind are created by association. Men sacrifice themselves for the community and for one another at the mysterious prompting of an unselfish love. For the general good they submit to law. Because some men are driven by an impulse within them to express to others their sense of truth and beauty the arts arise.

The apes had retreated southward before the increasing cold of Europe. Somewhere, it is likely in tropical countries, man evolved, and when the ice epoch was over, and probably before, he was in Europe, no longer, like his ancestors, taking the line of least resistance and making no fight against Nature, but combating her rigours, not by slow adaptation to environment, but by means which his own brain had devised by clothing and by fire. Thus he survived great changes of climate, and it is certain that man has existed in Western Europe for a long period during which many wild animals died out. He had reached the southern part of England long before the British Isles were separated by the sea from the mainland of Europe.

This was proved in 1912 by the discovery of portions of a skull and lower jaw in a river gravel at Piltdown, midway between Crowborough and Lewes in the Sussex

A. LEFT-SIDE VIEW OF THE PILTDOWN SKULL. B. LEFTSIDE VIEW OF SKULL OF A PRIMITIVE TYPE FROM LA-CHAPELLE-AUX-SAINTS. C. MODERN HUMAN SKULL. D. SKULL OF A YOUNG CHIMPANZEE

Reproduced by permission from "A Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man," British Museum (Natural History)

Weald. Since the laying down of this gravel the geography of the district has entirely changed, and the river that left it has either changed its course or completely disappeared. It is not often that so ancient a gravel is preserved, and any fossils found in it would therefore be of great antiquity and value. Some of

these are older than the gravel itself and must have been washed into it from earlier rock layers. They consist of portions of teeth of the mastodon, of an early elephant, and of the rhinoceros. Some teeth of hippopotamus and beaver and part of the antler of a red deer are probably of the same age as the gravel itself. There are also flint implements, some exceedingly primitive and, like certain of the fossils, older than the gravel; the others, which are roughly chipped, are almost certainly of the same age. The condition of the human remains has caused them to be assigned to the same period as these, and Piltdown man appears to be one of the earliest specimens of the human race that the rocks have so far revealed to us.

The skull, in spite of ape-like peculiarities, is on the whole absolutely human. The forehead is as steep as is usual in modern man, and without the prominent bony brow-ridges characteristic of apes. The face must have been unusually large, and the skull very broad in proportion to its length, but the brain cavity is 1300 c.c., which is equal to that of the smaller human brains at the present day. However, while the skull is completely human, the lower jaw is almost exactly that of an ape, though its greater width probably made articulate speech possible. The teeth are human in type though rather large, but the canine teeth probably interlocked in ape fashion.

Piltdown man therefore appears to have been one of the early forefathers of the human race. His remains show that man acquired his characteristic brain and skull before he had advanced sufficiently to substitute craft and invented weapons for the use of teeth in the struggle for existence. A lower jaw, retreating and ape-like, but with teeth resembling those of some of the

lower races of existing men, and with canines neither large nor prominent, was dug up in 1907 near Heidelberg in river-drift where there were also found bones

and teeth of the types
of horse, bear, elephant,
and rhinoceros which
were living when the
Piltdown gravel was
formed. This shows that
men of much the same
type as Piltdown man
were living in Europe
during the same period.
Somewhat later there
appeared in
in Europe
another race of men,
whose skeleton is almost
completely known from
remains discovered from
time to time. They are
found in association

A, DIAGRAMMATIC RESTORATION
OF SKELETON FROM LA-
CHAPELLE-AUX-SAINTS COM-
PARED WITH B, SKELETON OF
EXISTING AUSTRALIAN MAN
In A the shoulder-blade is wanting
From "A Guide to the Fossil Remains
of Man" (B. M.), by permission
bison, woolly rhinoceros, cave-lion, and reindeer.

with flint implements elaborately chipped on one face, and with the bones of the mammoth,

All the skulls are characterized by great bony browridges which produce a retreating forehead like that of existing apes. The brain cavity, however (about 1626 c.c.), is larger than that of the average European of to-day, though the brain may have been of inferior quality. The jaws and teeth are quite human, and the only peculiarity in them is the absence of any bony prominence in the chin.

For some time this primitive race of men was contemporary with a much higher one which was in existence before the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros became extinct. The skulls of the latter race are as highly developed as those of the average European of to-day and their whole skeletons were in no way inferior. The existence of well-defined chins in these specimens emphasizes the extreme antiquity of those in which any bony prominence is lacking. The lower race died out or disappeared from Europe, and the higher one persisted and was the ancestor of our own.

Thus, though the facts at our disposal are scanty, we find that in proportion to the age of the rock beds in which human remains are found the more traces they retain of an ancestry related to the apes. They suggest descent from an ancient forest mammal, the special characteristic of which was an abnormal development of brain.