Frederick William I. engaged in 1715 of Silesia was confirmed to the Prussian in a war with Sweden, the results of which sovereign, who, in return, recognized were very advantageous for his kingdom. Maria Theresa's husband, Francis I. of Prussia acquired by it the greater part of Lorraine, as Emperor. Pomerania, and the sole command of the river Oder; and an end was now put to the ascendency which Sweden had previously exercised on the German side of the Baltic.

From the treaty of Dresden in 1745 to the beginning of the Seven Years' War, there was an interval of ten years' peace, which Frederick employed most energetically in strengthening the military resources of his dominions, and in organizing them, so as to be able to act with the greatest possible celerity and effect, whenever he might be attacked, or whenever it might suit him again to attack others.

In 1740, when Frederick William I. died, and Frederick II., who won the title of Frederick the Great, succeeded him, the Prussian dominions comprised rather more than 47,000 square miles, with a population of 2,500,000. Frederick II. de- The Seven Years' War (which was comtermined to make this kingdom one of menced by Frederick's march upon Dresthe principal powers of Europe; and he den in 1756, and which was terminated by effected his purpose. His dominions wanted the treaties of Paris and Hubertsburg, in solidity. The Prussian provinces stretched, 1763), had its origin chiefly in the bitter or rather sprawled, across the map of feelings of hostility, with which the PrusEurope, without sufficient connection or sian King was regarded by two royal breadth. The basis of the power of Prus- ladies, and by a third lady, who, though sia was in her central provinces on the uncrowned and unwed to any sovereign, Elbe and the Oder. To the south-east of ruled absolutely the councils of one of the these lay the large and fertile territory of greatest kingdoms of Europe. These Silesia, with an area of more than 14,000 were the Empress Maria Theresa of Aussquare miles, and a population of 1,250,000. tria, the Czarina Elizabeth of Russia, and The acquisition of Silesia would not only Madame de Pompadour, the mistress of give Prussia a most important increase, Louis XV. of France. The characters of but it would also give her compactness both the Czarina and of the French faand well-proportioned strength. The Elec-vourite lady, were very open to sarcasm tors of Brandenburg, about a century be- and lampoon; and Frederick was at least fore Frederick II.'s time, had set up claims to some parts of Silesia; but they had not insisted on those claims, and Silesia had for more than 200 years been possessed by the House of Hapsburg as part of the Austrian hereditary dominions. But there was now a tempting opportunity for plundering Austria. The Emperor Charles VI. died in 1740, leaving no male heirs. He had obtained from all the chief states of Christendom treaties guaranteeing to his daughter Maria Theresa the succession to his dominions; but, as soon as he was dead, six of these supposed friendly potentates began a war of spoliation against the young and seemingly helpless princess, who had become the head of the House of Hapsburg. Frederick wanted Silesia as his share of the booty; he seized it and secured it; and then left his confederates to carry on the remainder of the War of the Austrian Succession by themselves. By a treaty commenced at Breslau and concluded at Berlin in 1742, Austria ceded to Prussia all Lower Silesia, and all Upper Silesia also, except the principality of Teschen, and some districts near it. War broke out again in 1744 between Frederick and Maria Theresa; but by the treaty of Dresden in 1745, the possession

as proud of his power as a satirist and a wit, as of his military abilities. In the literary circle, which Frederick loved to gather round him in peace time, jests and epigrams on these notorious and important, if not illustrious, ladies, were very freely coined and repeated, Frederick himself being the author of many of the coarsest and most violent. They circulated rapidly in the capitals of Europe, and especially at St. Petersburg and Paris. Frederick succeeded amply in wounding the vanity of both the Czarina Elizabeth and Madame de Pompadour: but, like many other jesters, he bought his success rather dearly. He earned for himself the most intense hatred of those, against whom he had raised the laugh; and the fair disposers of the armies of Russia and France were eager to attack and ruin the derider of their charms and characters.

Maria Theresa was Frederick's enemy from more honourable motives. She naturally resented the ungenerous and treacherous attack, which the Prussian King had made upon her at the time of her extreme need; and the loss of Silesia was a serious diminution of the power of Austria, which she was deeply desirous to repair. In the hope of recovering this province, and of

But our conquest of Canada in the Seven Years' War crushed for ever those projects of French ambition. It made the FrancoCeltic inhabitants of America the inferiors, instead of becoming the lords and masters of the English settlers. It insured truth to the announcement which Montesquieu, a few years before, had made to the European world, "That a free, prosperous, and great people was forming in the forests of America, which England had sent forth her sons to inhabit."

thrusting back the upstart House of she possessed Louisiana southward; and Brandenburg to its old inferior position in her rulers were labouring zealously, and, the north-east of Germany, the Empress as it appeared, successfully, to extend listened willingly to the counsels of her their colonies and dependencies along the statesman Kaunitz, who recommended that whole course of the Mississippi, so as to Austria should ally herself not only with gird in, with a band of hostile provinces, Russia, but also with Austria's ancient the thirteen British Colonies, that were rival, France. The Saxons and the scattered along the Atlantic coast, and Swedes also viewed with displeasure and finally to subjugate or exterminate their alarm the growing importance of Prus- inhabitants. sia, and had received old injuries from her, which they were eager to avenge. It seemed impossible that the new kingdom, however well drilled her armies might be, and however well they might be commanded, could resist the assaults of France, Austria, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden united. Prussia's only allies on the continent were Hanover, Brunswick, and Hesse. It was true that the Elector of Hanover was also King of England; but it was thought that the English would be fully occupied by their own renewed war with France. When the treaty of Aix-leChapelle closed in 1748 the War of the Austrian Succession, in which both England and France had taken part, the rival claims of the two nations in North America and in India had been left unsettled. Hostilities between their colonists and garrisons in the Far East and in the Far West had never entirely ceased; and, in June 1755, the English, by way of reprisals for alleged French aggressions, captured a large number of French merchantmen and two ships of the line; an act that made formal and declared war within a short period inevitable.

The alliance between Austria and France brought about, on the other side, a close connection between Prussia and England, which was all the stronger, because King George II. of England firmly believed that it was only by the help of Prussia that his Hanoverian dominions could be defended against French invasion and conquest.

American historians* rightly consider the Seven Years' War as the commencement of American independence; for our victories in that war saved their country from sinking into the ignominious wretchedness of a province of the old French monarchy. And not only are the campaigns, which actually took place on the American continent itself, material to the history of the United States; but the progress and the varying fortunes of the contemporaneous strife in Germany are also properly treated as essential portions of the same great narrative. If Frederick and his European allies had been crushed by their confederate enemies in the continental war, the English ministry could have sent out no new expeditions; they could not even have maintained any troops across the far Atlantic. On the other hand, France, if victorious in Germany, could have reinforced her armies in Canada into certain and overwhelming superiority. The English and the colonists of the time Two great issues were raised and settled well knew that this was the fact. in the Seven Years' War. The first, which must conquer Canada in Germany," were more immediately concerned Prussia, was the words of our great minister Pitt; and whether a new first-class power, and that a expressions no less emphatic were used by Protestant power, should be established in the chief men of thought and action in Northern Germany, notwithstanding the British America. Every victory, which opposition of the House of Hapsburg. The Frederick gained, was hailed with as gratesecond issue (which more directly affected ful rejoicings in Boston and New York as England), was whether the English or the in London. This sympathy of England French race should become predominant and of English America with Prussia a in North America. It is to be remembered that less than 120 years ago France seemed more likely than England to become the ascendant power in the New World. The Canadas and Cape Breton belonged to her in the north of the American continent;olution," vol. i. VOL. XIX. 878

LIVING AGE.

"We

century ago was also made more fervent by the semi-religious character which the Seven Years' War assumed. Catholic

See Bancroft's "History of the American Rev.

France and Catholic Austria were leagued together on one side, and their bigoted hate of Protestantism was notorious and active.

The negotiations which were carried on between the courts of St. Petersburg, Stockholm, Vienna, Dresden, and Paris for a combined attack on Prussia did not escape the vigilance of Frederick. He was utterly unscrupulous about such formalities as expostulating, or asking for explanations, or even declaring war, before he struck a blow, if he saw a good opportunity of striking hard before his adversary was fully prepared, or even aware that a blow was impending.

from his central position in Silesia and Saxony Frederick darted out, as opportunity offered, on the hostile bodies that were operating in other provinces. But when the Prussian King thus advanced with his main army against one of his numerous enemies, he unavoidably gave opportunities for others to inflict severe injuries on his power. Great part of Saxony was rent from him; and in the chequered campaigns of 1757 he nearly lost Silesia, a loss which would have been irreparable.

I have chosen for description the battle of Leuthen, one of the battles of this, the second year of the war, on account of the critical vicissitudes of that twelvemonth, and because Frederick's success on the field of Leuthen, when he seemed to be on the brink of ruin, was such as (in the words of Napoleon) "to restore all, and to give to the King of Prussia immortal glory." *

up a strong position at Kolin. Frederick attacked them there, but was completely defeated, with the loss of 15,000 men. Daun's activity in following up his victory was not equal to the skill and firmness which he had shown in gaining it. Frederick was able to retire with the wrecks of his army, and to unite them with the corps, which had been left in observation before Prague.

Frederick had in 1756 not only a large number of soldiers, amounting to 120,000, enrolled on his army lists, but he had them actually under arms, well trained, well disciplined, well officered, and well organized. Infantry, artillery and cavalry, all were ready in due proportion for combined ac- In the spring of 1757, Frederick made a tion, whenever their royal generalissimo bold and rapid march into Bohemia, and should direct them to cross the frontier. defeated an Austrian army near Prague. Besides these disposable troops, he had The beaten troops took shelter within the his fortresses all effectively armed and gar- walls of Prague, and were blockaded there risoned, and he had ample and well-ar-by the Prussians. Another Austrian force, ranged depôts and magazines for repairing under Marshal Daun, advanced, and took the losses of men and matériel, which his troops in the field against an enemy might be expected to sustain. Careful organization before hostilities, and skilful alertness during hostilities, were the great secrets of Frederick's success in the war. He began it in August 1756, by suddenly leading an army, 64,000 strong, into Saxony. He took Dresden; he blockaded the Saxon troops in Pirna; repulsed an Austrian army that advanced to their relief, and The exultation of Austria at the victory compelled them to capitulate on the 14th of Kolin was unbounded. A new order of of October. knighthood was instituted, of which MarSaxony and Silesia, but especially Sile-shal Daun was one of the first chief dignisia, became the core of Frederick's power during the war. In and along Saxony and Silesia he manoeuvred and fought with unequalled skill, celerity, and resolution against the enormously superior armies, that came round against him on every side, and seemed certain to crush him, or at least to wear down his comparatively scanty forces. He was obliged to abandon the remote provinces of his kingdom. His capital, Berlin, was repeatedly pillaged, and more than once occupied by Russian invaders. But as long as he could retain Silesia, Frederick judged the struggle with his enemies to be maintainable; and the result of the war proved the soundness of his judgment. His warfare was far from being merely defensive. It consisted frequently of sudden and daring attacks: and

taries. Not only the court of Vienna, but the camps of the Imperialist generals, were occupied for some weeks with rejoicings and thanksgivings. At last the main force of the Austrians, under Prince Charles of Lorraine and Marshal Daun, moved in the direction of Silesia. Frederick gave part of his army to one of his Generals, the Prince of Bevern, and sent him to defend Silesia, while the King himself, with the scanty remnant of his force, marched rapidly into Thuringia, towards the River Saale, where his presence was now urgently needed. A French army, under the Marquis of Soubise, strengthened by a large force of Imperialists, was advancing * "Le Roi s'immortalise, et repare tout en gagnant la bataille de 5 Decembre."- - Napoleon's Memoires, vol. v., p. 353.

siderable ability as well as courage; but at this crisis he was elated by success, and allowed his confidence to degenerate into carelessness.

through Thuringia. The two armies met | ordinate to Prince Charles in the Imperialnear Rossbach. Soubise attempted to ist camp. The Prince of Lorraine showed, turn the Prussian flank; but this ma- in many parts of his military career, connoeuvre (to which Frederick owed many of his victories) required to be executed by thoroughly well-trained, and well-officered troops; and the army under Soubise was ill-formed, ill-organized, and ill-conducted. Frederick attacked them while they were floundering in their own confused and confusing movements. The Prussian cavalry and artillery threw them into a panic rout, and Frederick obtained a complete victory, with the loss of no more than 300 men. Only six of his battalions had taken part in the actual fighting. He took 7000 prisoners, thirty-seven colours, and nearly the whole of Soubise's cannon.

The success at Rossbach was brilliant, but, in Frederick's own words, "far more was necessary." The army, which was led by the King himself, had been victorious in Thuringia, but in other scenes of the war the Prussians were sustaining terrible reverses. Frederick hurried into Silesia to save, if possible, the important stronghold of Schweidnitz, which he knew to be hard-pressed by the Austrians under the Prince of Lorraine; but on his march he heard that Schweidnitz was already lost; with it were lost large magazines and military stores of every description, and 6000 men who had formed its garrison.

Prince Charles had determined to advance against the advancing Prussians. He marched his forces out of their strong position in their camp near Breslau, and across the stream called the " Schweidnitz water." He then halted, and took up a position about ten miles from Neumarkt, across the road between that place and Breslau, by which Frederick was approaching. His position was a strong one his right wing rested on the village of Nypern, and the ground in front of it, and of his right-centre, was marshy and broken, so as to greatly impede an enemy, if advancing against that part of the Austrian line. The centre and left-centre were posted in and near to the village of Leuthen, and his left wing had the support of the village of Sagchutz. His line stretched about five miles from north to south. About four miles in advance of his centre, on the road by which the enemy was coming up from the west, lay the little hamlet of Borne. The Prince sent forward three regiments of dragoons, and two of hussars, to occupy this advanced post.

The Prince of Lorraine, encouraged by this conquest, attacked, with great superiFrederick had the great advantage of ority of force, the Prussian General Bev- knowing accurately and minutely the ern, on the 22nd of November, near ground, over which he was moving, and Breslau. He defeated him, and Breslau that on which his enemy was stationed. surrendered to the Austrians four days He had frequently in peace time reviewed afterwards. The victorious army in Silesia his troops, and put them through the variunder the Prince of Lorraine was now 80-ous manoeuvres of an imaginary battle in 000 strong; Frederick had not half that number; and many of the troops under him, when he resolved to continue his march and attack Prince Charles, consisted of beaten fugitives.

this very locality. But this knowledge of the country, though it proved eminently serviceable to him in the real battle which ensued, made him understand keenly and painfully before the battle, how difficult it On the 4th of December, at daybreak, would be to dislodge the Austrian army, Frederick made a sudden attack on the more than double his own in number, from town of Neumarkt, which lies about four- the position in which it had halted. Victeen miles to the west of Breslau. He tory was impossible for him, except by surprised there a body of 4000 Croats, who daring operations and consummate genhad been thrown forward without support eralship on his part, seconded and carried a long way in advance of the Prince of out by intelligent self-devotion, and rapid Lorraine's main army. The intelligence but orderly evolutions on the part of the that Frederick was marching to attack officers and soldiers. It is not common in them had been received with contempt- modern warfare for a commander-in-chief uous mockery by the Austrian command- to harangue an army; but Frederick ers, all save one that one was Marshal knew that he had to meet no common Daun, who had beaten Frederick at Kolin, emergency; and he felt the need of embut who knew that the Prussian King was ploying all the moral force that it was posan antagonist not to be trifled with. For- sible for him to acquire, before commenctunately for Prussia, Daun was now sub-ing a life-or-death struggle with an enemy,

who in physical force so far surpassed him. Charles with five regiments of dragoons The beech tree is still pointed out on the and hussars. Throughout this campaign road near Neumarkt, where the Prussian the Austrians seem to have been negliKing assembled his generals, and thus ad- gent, to the last degree, of out-post duty, dressed them: "While I was defeating while the vigilant and active Prussians the French, Charles of Lorraine has suc- omitted no possible precaution or exerceeded in capturing Schweidnitz, defeat- tion, that could aid them in screening their ing Prince Bevern, and making himself own movements, or in watching and surmaster of Breslau. Great part of Silesia, prising their adversaries. The Austrian the capital city of the province, and my hussars and dragoons in Borne found that stores of war are lost. My disasters the Prussians were upon them in overwould be irreparable, if I had not reason whelming force, without having been aware to place a boundless trust in your cour- of their approach. Such of the Austrian age, your firmness, and your love of vanguard as escaped, galloped off to the father-land. There is not one of you, but north of the causeway towards Nypern, to has distinguished himself by some great the right of the position of the Imperialist and honourable deed. The moment for main army. The Austrian general Lucvalorous exertion has now come. Listen, chesi, who commanded that wing, thought then; I am resolved, against all rules of that the Prussian attack was being directed the art of war, to attack the nearly three- on him, and he sent earnest entreaties to fold stronger army of Charles of Lorraine. Prince Charles and Marshal Daun for reinThere is no doubt about the number of forcements. They were sent to him; and, the enemy, or of the strength of their po- what was still more important, Marshal sition. We must beat them; or we must Daun himself rode to the right wing, the all of us find our graves before their bat- scene of supposed peril. But the Austrian teries. This is my determination. Thus left was the real object of Frederick's operaI mean to act. Announce my decision to tions, which were executed in the most rapid all the officers of my army. Prepare the and skilful manner. He took advantage of soldiers for the scenes which are at hand. a range of low hillocks, that trend from Let them know that I demand unqualified north-west to south-east, a little beyond obedience. They are Prussians. They Borne. He occupied their summits with will not show themselves unworthy of the detachments of cavalry; and, screened by name. Is there any one of you who fears them and by the mist, that continued more to share all dangers with me? If so, he or less throughout the day, the Prussian may at once retire. I never will reproach battalions of infantry, and a large mass of him." chosen horse under Zethen (Frederick's favourite cavalry general), started to the south-east, so as to place themselves in overwhelming force upon and across the extreme Austrian left at Sagschutz. The movement was perilous. If the Austrian commanders had been more vigilant in pushing forward advanced squadrons to reconnoitre and ascertain exactly what their enemy was doing, the Prince of Lorraine might have brought down his reserves, and his forces from his right and his centre, and he might have taken the Prussian columns in flank while executing their oblique march towards the Austrian left. If this had been done, the Austrians would, in Napoleon's judgment, have taken On Monday, the 5th of December, 1757, the Prussian army en flagrant délit, and long before the winter sun rose, Frederick must have defeated it. But the Austrians was on his march with his army in four seem to have expected that Frederick, if, columns from Neumarkt towards Leuthen. after all, he ventured to assail them, would The King himself rode with the vanguard. come on straight forward against their The morning was dull and misty. About front; and they gave no interruption to seven, the Prussians came to Borne, the the manoeuvres of their skilful and deterlittle village already mentioned, about four mined foe. The Austrian commander on miles in advance of the centre of the Aus- their left was General Nadasti, who, about trian position, and occupied by Prince' one o'clock of the day, was surprised by

The King saw in the countenances and gestures of those whom he addressed, that they shared his spirit. He then added, "I know that not one of you will leave me. I rely on your true aid, and I feel assured of victory. Go, tell your regiments what you have heard from me."

As they moved to leave him, he said, "The regiment of cavalry which shall not instantly, at the order, charge, shall be dismounted, and sent into garrison. The battalion of infantry, that even falters, shall lose its colours. Now farewell, friends; we shall soon see each other as victors, or we shall see each other no more."