The alliance was popular in England and in Japan, but some thinkers considered it involved too serious risks for England, whose interests did not seem to be vitally imperilled. It may be added that in August 1905 the alliance was renewed in a more intimate form, its operation being extended to attacks on India and both allies being bound to repel aggressive action, whether by one Power or more, against either country's territorial rights in the East. 5. Russo-Japanese War. 1904-5.-Japan, unable to obtain satisfaction, and being already prepared for war, on February 6, 1904, withdrew her ambassador from St. Petersburg. At midnight on the 8th the Japanese fleet made a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. Another fleet crushed the two Russian ships at Chemulpo, the port of Seoul, the capital of Korea, and landed troops there. Without the command of the sea Japan could not make war, as she could not land troops, but by these two steps a base was secured before the Russians had notice that hostilities had begun. On the 10th Japan made a formal declaration of war. The First Japanese Army forced a passage over the river Yalu into Manchuria and the Second Army cut off Port Arthur from the north. A Third Army laid siege to Port Arthur, while the Second Army defeated a Russian relieving force. This was only achieved by desperate fighting. Kuropatkin, the Russian general, was next forced back by ten days' continuous fighting from Liaoyang to Mukden. Meanwhile England was profoundly agitated. Admiral Rosh destvensky with a Russian fleet was proceeding southwards through the North Sea when some of his cruisers opened fire on a fleet of English fishing vessels from Hull, which were peacefully trawling on the Dogger Bank, but which the Russians mistook for Japanese torpedo boats. As the Russian naval officers refused to admit their mistake matters seemed serious; but eventually the issue was referred to an International Commission, and Russia paid the indemnity claimed. The progress of Roshdestvensky's Fleet made it vital for the Japanese to hasten the fall of Port Arthur, which finally surrendered on January 1, 1905. This freed the besieging force, and before the determined assaults of five armies the Russians had to retreat from Mukden. Finally Roshdestvensky's fleet was crushed by Togo in the Straits of Tsushima. Peace was made on the kindly intervention of President Roosevelt, Japan securing a practical protectorate wer Korea and Port Arthur, while the rest of Manchuria was to evacuated by both parties. 1901-1910 KING EDWARD VII'S REIGN 985 6. Foreign Policy, 2nd Period. -The next change in our foreign policy was in the cessation of our estrangement from France. On the one hand the menacing increase of the German fleet and other causes led our statesmen to a reconsideration of our international relations. At the same time King Edward, exerting himself throughout his reign in the interests of peace and goodwill and in the settlement of international disputes by arbitration, devoted himself to the conciliation of France. He visited Paris, and being very popular with the French President and people created an atmosphere in which friendly diplomacy could work. A good understanding that was called Entente Cordiale was established and a Treaty of Arbitration between the two countries was made in October 1903. Finally an Anglo-French Agreement was signed on April 8, 1904, which removed all existing causes of difference. Questions about the Newfoundland fishery and the frontiers of West African colonies were amicably settled. France recognised Britain's predominant position in Egypt, and England agreed to give France a free hand in Morocco, where she had trouble with the tribes on the Algerian frontier, so long as nothing was done to interfere with the free passage of the Straits of Gibraltar. The Agreement was a purely peaceful one and implied no hostility to any other Power, but the drawing together of France and England was the cause of profound dissatisfaction in Germany. The French Foreign Minister, M. Delcassé, the promoter of the Anglo-French Agreement, who was believed to be the advocate of a further Anglo-French Alliance, had eventually to resign in 1905. This was considered a signal triumph of German diplomacy, which was now very active in interfering in the question of Morocco on the plea of protecting German interests. In 1906 a Conference was held at Algeciras, near Gibraltar. Germany was at first very hostile to France, but eventually the Conference decided that France was to be allowed to act on the Algerian frontier, and, further, that there was to be a Moorish police force with French and Spanish officers. In consequence France and Spain both entered on warlike operations with Morocco. Subsequently there was again serious friction between Germany and France about some German deserters from the French troops there, but the matter was referred to arbitration. France now the friend of England was also the ally of Russia, and the next step was to remove the friction which had long existed between England and Russia. Some of the outstanding questions at issue were settled by an Anglo-Russian Convention which was signed on August 31, 1907. The independence of Persia was to be respected by both countries: Russia was to have as her sphere of influence for commercial concessions etc. the north of Persia, including the capital, Teheran; England was to have a smaller sphere in the south-east near Baluchistan. Afghanistan was to be kept from Russian influence, but England was not to alter the status quo in that country. This part of the Convention was to be subject to the consent of the Ameer. While the idea of a friendly agreement with Russia was welcomed, the actual terms of the Convention were criticised as being unfavourable to British interests. 7. Foreign Countries. In 1901 a conflict between Chili and Argentina was averted by the arbitration of King Edward VII. In the same year in the United States President McKinley was shot by a Polish Anarchist; this was the third time that a President of the United States had been assassinated. The VicePresident, Theodore Roosevelt, a man of great strength of character, succeeded, in accordance with the Constitution; he became most popular and was re-elected as President from 1904 to 1909. The United States, having bought up the French interest, determined to construct the Panama Canal. In 1903 the Congress of the Republic of Colombia, as sovereign of the Isthmus, having refused to ratify the treaty allowing the construction of the Canal, the Province of Panama declared itself an independent republic and accepted the terms proposed. Great progress has been made in the sanitation of the isthmus and in the construction of the canal. In Servia there had been two rival royal families, the Obrenovitch and the Karageorgevitch. In 1903 Europe was horrified to hear that through an anti-dynastic plot King Alexander (the last Obrenovitch), with his Queen, Draga, had been murdered by officers in the army. Peter Karageorgevitch succeeded, but was not recognised by Great Britain for some time. After the unsuccessful war, there were widespread revolutionary movements in Russia. In 1905 a Constitution was granted and a Duma or Parliament was established, but the first and second democratic Dumas were soon dissolved. A third Duma was elected in 1907 by indirect election, and also a Council of the Empire or a Second Chamber, half being elected and half nominated by the Czar. Both Houses were given equal powers and a measure had to be passed by both before being submitted for Imperial sanction. The Union between Sweden and Norway existing since 1814 1901-1910 KING EDWARD VII'S REIGN 987 was repealed by a peaceful revolution in 1905, and Prince Carl of Denmark, a nephew of our Queen Alexandra, was elected King of Norway as Haakon VII. In 1906 Alfonso, King of Spain, married Princess Ena of Battenberg, the niece of King Edward VII. ; this was notable as the first intermarriage between the royal families of England and Spain since Queen Mary was wedded to Philip. After the ceremony a bomb was thrown at the royal carriage by an anarchist, causing great loss of life, though the King and Queen were fortunately uninjured. In Portugal party Government had been unsuccessful, and Senhor Franco, becoming Premier, tried to govern for a time without a parliament; this caused great resentment, especially among the politicians, which culminated in 1908 in the assassination of both the King and the Crown Prince. The next heir, only seventeen years of age, was also wounded, but succeeded to the crown as King Manoel. There was no real investigation into the murders, and it seemed as if the dynasty was not popular and as if there was a strong republican party in the capital.1 8. Tariff Reform.-In 1903 Mr. Chamberlain, the able Colonial Secretary in Mr. Balfour's Ministry, advocated a modified form of Protection, which was called Tariff Reform. (1) A preference in trade was to be given to our Colonies, and (2) taxes were to be levied on imports, except raw materials, and there was to be retaliation against hostile tariffs. There was to be in fact a reversal of the Free Trade system of the last sixty years, the experience of which had led Free Traders to believe that all trade flourishes best when it is not interfered with by duties, while a preference to Colonial produce, involving a duty on imports of wheat etc. from other countries, would raise the price of food. The Tariff Reformers, on the other hand, argue that their policy would bind the Colonies closer to the Mother Country, diminish unemployment by stimulating home industries, be a useful weapon in fighting hostile tariffs, while not appreciably increasing the cost of food. On September 18 Mr. Chamberlain resigned in order to advocate his policy more freely. The Free Trade Ministers in the Cabinet, in ignorance of Mr. Chamberlain's resignation, also resigned. The Ministry was remodelled and lasted two years more, but the gradual weakening of the Government and the internal dissensions of the party on the Tariff Question led to the resignation of Mr. Balfour on December 4, 1905. 1 On October 4, 1910, the anti-monarchical party in Lisbon accomplished a revolution with little difficulty. King Manoel fled the country, and a Republican Government was established. 9. Campbell-Bannerman and Asquith Ministries.-In December, 1905, Sir H. Campbell- Bannerman became Premier on Mr. Balfour's resignation and dissolved Parliament. The Unionists returned with only 157 instead of 369; the Liberals with 379 besides more than 50 Labour members and 83 Nationalists. In April 1908 Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman resigned from illhealth, and was succeeded by Mr. Asquith, whose place as Chancellor of the Exchequer was taken by Mr. Lloyd George. 10. Army and Navy Reform.-The Boer War revealed the utter inadequacy of the British army as regards numbers and the insufficiency of its training and organisation. A new danger appeared on the horizon. United Germany for the last thirty years had been rapidly increasing in population, in the volume of her industries, and in wealth, and had become a formidable rival to England in trade. Not content with the possession of the most powerful army in Europe she has especially in King Edward's reign been building a powerful navy and making extensive naval works on her northern coasts. Such measures could not but arouse suspicion and raise the question whether our army and navy were sufficient at once for the defence of our own shores and our world-wide Empire. The plan of universal military training has been advocated by Earl Roberts and other reformers. The government has so far aimed at improving our existing resources. Under Mr. Balfour's Ministry in 1903 the Council of Defence was enlarged from a mere Committee of the Cabinet to one including naval and military experts as permanent members. In 1905 Mr. Balfour stated that England ought to be prepared to meet an invading force of 70,000 men. Considerable advance has been made by Mr. Haldane's scheme of 1907. By this there is established (1) a field army or expeditionary force of about 160,000 men, serving seven years and then five in the reserve, while nucleus battalions to train drafts and a special reserve to fill up wastage in war are to replace the Militia, which is abolished; (2) there is enrolled a home army, as a second line (replacing the Volunteers), formed as a Territorial Force of about 300,000 men and supplied with artillery, the former Yeomanry being remodelled as the cavalry of this force; this home army is organised on a county basis and has to serve for four years, drilled on Volunteer lines, but having to spend eight or fifteen days in camp each year. There is a General Staff for the whole. Increases were made in Army Service and Medical Corps, while to supply the deficiency of officers a Senior Officers' Training Corps was formed at the Uni versities and a Junior one at the public schools. The new force is |