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pletely barren, like hybrids from the union of two widely distinct species.

66

AN IDEAL TYPE " OR INEVITABLE MODIFICATION?

Fertilization

of Orchids

by Insects, page 245.

It is interesting to look at one of the magnificent exotic species (orchids), or, indeed, at one of our humblest forms, and observe how profoundly it has been modified, as compared with all ordinary flowers-with its great labellum, formed of one petal and two petaloid stamens; with its singular pollenmasses, hereafter to be referred to; with its column formed of seven cohering organs, of which three alone perform their proper function, namely, one anther and two generally confluent stigmas; with the third stigma modified into the rostellum and incapable of being fertilized; and with three of the anthers no longer functionally active, but serving either to protect the pollen of the fertile anther or to strengthen the column, or existing as mere rudiments, or entirely suppressed. What an amount of modification, cohesion, abortion, and change of function do we here see! Yet hidden in that column, with its surrounding petals and sepals, we know that there are fifteen groups of vessels, arranged three within three, in alternate order, which probably have been preserved to the present time from being developed at a very early period of growth, before the shape or existence of any part of the flower is of importance for the well-being of the plant.

Can we feel satisfied by saying that each orchid was created, exactly as we now see it, on a certain "ideal type"; that the omnipotent Creator, having fixed on one plan for the whole order, did not depart from this plan; that he, therefore, made the same organ to perform di

verse functions-often of trifling importance compared with their proper function-converted other organs into mere purposeless rudiments, and arranged all as if they had to stand separate, and then made them cohere? Is it not a more simple and intelligible view that all the Orchidea owe what they have in common to descent from some monocotyledonous plant, which, like so many other plants of the same class, possessed fifteen organs, arranged alternately, three within three, in five whorls; and that the now wonderfully changed structure of the flower is due to a long course of slow modification-each modification having been preserved which was useful to the plant, during the incessant changes to which the organic and inorganic world has been exposed?

SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS TO A CHANGING PURPOSE.

Fertilization of Orchids, page 282.

It has, I think, been shown that the Orchidea exhibit an almost endless diversity of beautiful adaptations. When this or that part has been spoken of as adapted for some special purpose, it must not be supposed that it was originally always formed for this sole purpose. The regular course of events seems to be, that a part which originally served for one purpose becomes adapted by slow changes for widely different purposes. To give an instance: in all the Ophreæ, the long and nearly rigid caudicle manifestly serves for the application of the pollen-grains to the stigma, when the pollinia are transported by insects to another flower; and the anther opens widely in order that the pollinium should be easily withdrawn ; but, in the Bee ophrys, the caudicle, by a slight increase in length and decrease in its thickness, and by the anther opening a little more widely, becomes specially adapted for the very different purpose

of self-fertilization, through the combined aid of the weight of the pollen-mass and the vibration of the flower when moved by the wind. Every gradation between these two states is possible-of which we have a partial instance in O. aranifera.

Again, the elasticity of the pedicel of the pollinium in some Vandeæ is adapted to free the pollen-masses from their anther-cases; but, by a further slight modification, the elasticity of the pedicel becomes specially adapted to shoot out the pollinium with considerable force, so as to strike the body of the visiting insect. The great cavity in the labellum of many Vandeæ is gnawed by insects, and thus attracts them; but in Mormodes ignea it is greatly reduced in size, and serves in chief part to keep the labellum in its new position on the summit of the column. From the analogy of many plants we may infer that a long, spur-like nectary is primarily adapted to secrete and hold a store of nectar; but in many orchids it has so far lost this function that it contains fluid only in the intercellular spaces. In those orchids in which the nectary contains both free nectar and fluid in the intercellular spaces, we can see how a transition from the one state to the other could be effected, namely, by less and less nectar being secreted from the inner membrane, with more and more retained within the intercellular spaces. Other analogous cases could be given.

Although an organ may not have been originally formed for some special purpose, if it now serves for this end, we are justified in saying that it is specially adapted for it. On the same principle, if a man were to make a machine for some special purpose, but were to use old wheels, springs, and pulleys, only slightly altered, the whole machine, with all its parts, might be said to be specially contrived for its present purpose. Thus through

out nature almost every part of each living being has probably served, in a slightly modified condition, for diverse purposes, and has acted in the living machinery of many ancient and distinct specific forms.

In my examination of orchids, hardly any fact has struck me so much as the endless diversities of structure -the prodigality of resources-for gaining the very same end, namely, the fertilization of one flower by pollen. from another plant. This fact is to a large extent intelligible on the principle of natural selection. As all the parts of a flower are co-ordinated, if slight variations in any one part were preserved from being beneficial to the plant, then the other parts would generally have to be modified in some corresponding manner. But these latter parts might not vary at all, or they might not vary in a fitting manner, and these other variations, whatever their nature might be, which tended to bring all the parts into more harmonious action with one another, would be preserved by natural selection.

Page 284.

AN ILLUSTRATION.

To give a simple illustration in many orchids the ovarium (but sometimes the footstalk) becomes for a period twisted, causing the labellum to assume the position of a lower petal, so that insects can easily visit the flower; but from slow changes in the form or position of the petals, or from new sorts of insects visiting the flowers, it might be advantageous to the plant that the labellum should resume its normal position on the upper side of the flower, as is actually the case with Malaxis paludosa, and some species of Catasetum, etc. This change, it is obvious, might be simply effected by the continued selection of varieties which had their ovaria less and less twisted; but, if the

plant only afforded varieties with the ovarium more twisted, the same end could be attained by the selection of such variations, until the flower was turned completely round on its axis. This seems to have actually occurred with Malaxis paludosa, for the labellum has acquired its present upward position by the ovarium being twisted twice as much as is usual.

Again, we have seen that in most Vandea there is a plain relation between the depth of the stigmatic chamber and the length of the pedicel, by which the pollen-masses are inserted; now, if the chamber became slightly less deep from any change in the form of the column, or other unknown cause, the mere shortening of the pedicel would be the simplest corresponding change; but, if the pedicel did not happen to vary in shortness, the slightest tendency to its becoming bowed from elasticity, as in Phalanopsis, or to a backward hygrometric movement, as in one of the Maxillarias, would be preserved, and the tendency would be continually augmented by selection; thus the pedicel, as far as its action is concerned, would be modified in the same manner as if it had been shortened. Such processes carried on during many thousand generations in various ways, would create an endless diversity of co-adapted structures in the several parts of the flower for the same general purpose. This view affords, I believe, the key which partly solves the problem of the vast diversity of structure adapted for closely analogous ends in many large groups of organic beings.

AS INTERESTING ON THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT AS ON THAT OF DIRECT INTERPOSITION.

Page 285.

The more I study nature, the more I become impressed, with ever-increasing force, that the contrivances and beautiful adaptations slowly

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