CHAP. VII. and capital became freer in its operation. Another fallacy of the time which injured trade was the notion, that the country was rich in proportion as it received money from foreigners and paid none. This idea, called the balance of trade, was propounded in an act of Henry VII., reviving a former one of Edward IV., forbidding coin, plate, or jewels, to be sent out of the country. In conformity with this law, Erasmus was stripped of all his money, except a few angels, when he returned to Holland.* A third evil under Monopoly. which commerce lay, was monopoly. Hardly a foreign state existed, the exclusive right of trading with which, was not allotted to some mercantile association. Internal trade was managed in the same way, the merchants of the Staple enjoying exclusively the right of traffic in the chief home commodities. The manufacturing arts were also tied up; the grasp of a patentee was upon almost every article; and even the exercise of industry was fettered, by the privileges enjoyed by the several guilds in London, Bristol, Norwich, Coventry, York, and other places. In the enactment of navigation laws, we perceive a better spirit; for in the infancy of commerce such regulations were necessary. But English consumers were deprived of the competition which would bring their commodities at the cheapest rate, and with the most constant supply; and we find that in Elizabeth's first parliament the navigation laws were so far relaxed that merchandise was allowed to be exported and imported in foreign bottoms. Merchant 13. English merchants: Sir Thomas Gresham. In spite, however, of these disadvantages, English merchants expanded their trade. The privileges of the Steelyard Company were Companies. abolished in the reign of Edward VI., and the Netherland trade was transferred to the English Merchant Adventurers, an old company re-established under Henry VII. Another English company was incorporated in 1579, by the name of the Fellowship of Eastland Merchants, with the exclusive right of trading to Norway, and the countries along the coasts of the Baltic. In short, towards the close of the sixteenth century, there were local companies of merchant adventurers in most of the great towns, enjoying exclusive privileges of trade to particular countries; and the final shutting up of the Steelyard, in 1597, completed the triumph of English industry, and its emancipation from foreign thraldom. The wealth of individual tradesmen in London became the amazement of foreigners, and many citizens possessed * Knight's Pop. Hist., II., 250. + Wade's Middle and Working Classes, 21, 1485-1603 from fifty to sixty thousand pounds sterling. Sir Thomas Gresham's aggrandisement was a characteristic feature of the age. His father, the son of an ancient and opulent family in Norfolk, had applied himself to merchandise in the reign of Henry VII. He enriched himself as the chief merchant and money dealer of Henry VIII.; he was favourable to the new religious opinions, and was a remarkable example of that conquest over old prejudice which shrank from traffic as derogatory to a gentlemen. He gave his son a university education at Cambridge, and made him a member of the Mercers' Company. The son followed the footsteps of the father, and he was banker to Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth; and by his advice the experiment was first tried, in 1569, of raising a loan for the crown at home, instead of resorting, as had hitherto been done, to foreign capitalists. His father had conceived the project of building an exchange, or covered walk, for the merchants of London, similar to the Antwerp Bourse, and he therefore determined upon executing it. His only demand upon the city, was for a site; which being readily granted, he erected upon it, in 1566-1570, a stately edifice of brick, roofed with slate, which Queen Elizabeth opened, and proclaimed with full state ceremonial, "The Royal Exchange." It consisted of a quadrangular arcade, surrounding an open court, with galleries above, containing shops. The Queen dined with Gresham on the occasion. But this great merchant displayed liberality and mercantile magnificence in other ways. His seat at Osterley Park, near Brentford, was a splendid mansion; and he founded the civil college known by his name; which, however, has long ceased to answer any useful purpose. 14. Inland trade, and means of communication. The greater part of the internal traffic of England, at this period, was still carried on in fairs, the chief of which were held at Stour- Fairs. bridge, Bristol, London (Bartholomew), and Lynton. The description of Vanity Fair, in Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress,, will give the reader the truest and most graphic account of what these fairs were. The constant resort to markets made inns flourish, Inns. especially on the great roads. The dissolution of the monasteries, also, gave them greater importance. The larger ones were of the form of an open court, with galleries around, communicating with the various ranges of apartments. The innkeeper in every town was a personage of note, and in country places, where the church living was poor, the incumbent was frequently the tavern keeper also, and entertained his guests much more as a friend and host, than the landlord of an hotel in these days. Every man might CHAP. VII. have what he called for, and be lodged in a clean chamber, of which he kept the key. The rooms were well furnished, especially with linen, and if the traveller lost anything while in the inn, the landlord was responsible. The signs were very gorgeously painted, to tempt travellers. But if the host was honest, the tapsters and chamberlains had a private understanding with thieves, who Travelling. infested the roads in great numbers.* Travelling was mostly on horseback, the state of the roads generally being too bad for wheeled carriages. Females usually rode behind their servants, but sometimes they travelled in litters. Coaches were used for the sick and infirm, or for occasions of state; and it is said that Lord Arundel introduced them in 1563. They were nothing more than ornamented wagons; they had neither springs nor glass windows; were richly carved, and had canopies and curtains. At the sides were projecting seats, called boots, usually occupied by attendants. Hired wagons were sometimes used for travellers, but regular stage conveyances were unknown. Relays of post horses were kept on the great roads; it was by post that Essex travelled when he left Ireland so suddenly, and appeared before the Queen before any intelligence had been received of his proceedings. There was no regular, speedy, national conveyance for letters; these being sent by such opportunities as offered-as by the carriers of goods; but in cases of importance, special couriers were employed. On the great road to Scotland, however, there were postmasters at different stations, who were responsible for the forwarding of the government despatches. This northern correspondence was of the highest importance in Elizabeth's reign, and Burleigh had the covers of the letters regularly marked with the time of the arrival of the messenger at the different stations. The following is an instance of this: "To Sir Raff Sadler and Sir James Crofts, knights at Berwicke, W. Cecill, for liff (life) liff, liff, 25th of November at Westminster. Received at Styelton the xxvi. day of November at six o'clocke at nite. Received at Neverke the xxvii. day of November at ix. of the clocke in the morning. Received at the xxviii. day of November at ii of the clocke at afternoon. Received at Newcastell, the first of December at xi. of the clocke before noon.' 18. Manufactures. Among the national manufactures, that of woollen cloth still preserved its old pre-eminence. Several distinct classes of workmen were employed in it; and the clothier was the capitalist who gave them work. He delivered a stipulated quantity to the weaver, who, after allowing for waste, was bound to return cloth of an honest weight, The woollen manu facture. The student should refer to the descriptions of Shakspeare, and other Elizabethan dramatists. See, also, Knight's Pop. Hist., II., 485. 1485-1603 ་་ open under the penalty of being put in the pillory, or the cucking stool. About the middle of the century, these clothiers began the practice of setting up looms in their own houses, and employing their own weavers. Machinery, however, was discouraged by the legislature; and gig mills, which had been lately devised, were prohibited by an act passed in 1551. The decline of corporate immunities during this period, effected a very important Decline of change in the cloth manufacture. These immunities, guilds. now that industry had taken firm root in the kingdom, became not only unnecessary, but oppressive, because tradesmen were prevented from carrying on their occupations in the towns, unless qualified by patrimony, apprenticeship, or purchase. Manufacturers, therefore, no longer requiring the protection of corporations, partly in consequence of a more regular police, and stricter administration of justice, settled in places enjoying local advantages best adapted to their pursuits, and Rise of the where they were unfettered by chartered privileges. towns." These manufacturers were termed "foreigners," and the towns they settled in were called open towns. Thus arose the manufactures of Birmingham, Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, and other places in the West Riding. Many of those who thus engaged in the woollen trade were husbandmen, or graziers, who made their own wool into cloth, with the assistance of their wives and families. The cloth they made was of a coarse description, and, judging from the statutes enacted regarding them, they were not remarkable for honesty in their dealings; passing off bad cloth for good, and giving short measure.* Between them and the guilds a constant struggle went on, and the legislature generally favoured the latter, by placing restrictions on the country workmen as to the number of their looms, and of their apprentices, and the places where they should carry on their trade. These places were chiefly situated in Essex, and the south-eastern counties; in Oxford, Berkshire, and the west of Eng- Manuland; and in the four northern counties. Wilts, districts. Gloucester, and Somerset, were famous for their broad cloths; Manchester was known for its rugs and friezes; York for coverlets; and Lancashire and Yorkshire for what were called "cottons." All these various descriptions of cloth were brought into general consumption by means of hawkers, pedlars, and traders, who visited the fairs, and kept their stalls in the open market places.. Aulnegers were appointed for every market, to examine the cloths offered for sale, and hold an assize upon them *Pict. Hist., II., 807. facturing The manu facture. CHAP. VII. for the purpose of sealing them as genuine. Next in value and importance was the worsted manufacture, which was carried on in the eastern counties, Norfolk being the principal seat worsted of the trade. When the Netherlands revolted against the tyranny of Spain, great numbers of their most skilful and industrious artisans came and settled in the eastern counties, and, by the introduction of new processes, considerably improved the trade. Norwich was the head town for the manufacture, and all goods had to be sent to it that they might be searched and sealed. Only certain substances and certain colours were allowed by statute in the dyeing but new substances, which the discovery of America made known, were soon brought into use, in spite of enactments to the contrary, because it was the interest of the dyers to use them, These were the staple manufactures of England at this period. Only coarse linens were as yet made, and these chiefly by housewives for family use; there was no regular silk trade; and, to show that manufacturing improvements were discouraged, we may mention that, when William Lee invented the stocking frame, in 1589, he was compelled to take Iron works. his invention to France. Iron works were carried on in Kent, Sussex, and Surrey; but, as wood had become scarce, and coal began to be used, they were removed to other districts where the new fuel abounded. The pin manufacture began in this period. A farm SECTION II.-THE PEASANTRY AND WORKING CLASSES. 19. Condition of the Yeomanry under Henry VII. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, farms were cheaply rented and roughly cultivated; and the condition of the peasantry was that of idle, coarse contentment. An ordinary farm house house. was a timber building, with walls of plaster, and the roof of thatch. The beds were straw pallets, covered with a coarse sheet; or, at the best, flock mattresses. There was seldom a chimney, and but few conveniences. The usual diet of the inmates Food. was salted meat, poultry, and dairy produce, with the coarser grain, as barley or rye, for bread, and, only occasionally, wheaten loaves or cakes; for the frequent use of wheaten bread was a luxury only for the rich. The rustic housewife spun the Occupations clothing from the wool and flax produced on the farm. She and her maids also measured out the corn, and sent it to the mill; brewed and baked for the household consumption; took charge of the cows, swine, and poultry, and took care of the garden; while the men attended to their labours afield, and |