spacious country house, quarreling over the problems of life and the teachings of Jesus. Here we are shown how many and great the difficulties are, under present conditions, of being such a Christian as Tolstoy had in mind. It is only because so few seriously try to become such Christians that so few realize how overwhelming those obstacles are. In many of his biographical writings Tolstoy makes clear that, in pursuit of a virtuous life, he had to struggle hard with his own nature, habits, and animal passions, and had to overcome early training and education; but in this drama he shows that, in attempting to be a Christian, he had to battle constantly, often bitterly, with his own family, with the Church, and with all the social, economic, and political conditions and institutions that surrounded him. In the opinion of some high authorities, Tolstoy was a great dramatic writer, and every reader knows that he was at his greatest in literature when he dealt with the problems of his own soul.

It is always risky to mix fiction and established fact. Just as historical novels constantly stray from the truth, so in many of his writings Tolstoy, when dealing with the problems of his own life and the characteristics of his own personality, breaks off without warning to introduce alien elements. This is true of "Boyhood," "Youth," and many of his earlier writings, but "The Light Shines in Darkness" seems to be a very accurate portrayal of much that occurred in the Tolstoy household toward the end of Tolstoy's life. At any rate, some of the characters and many of the situations are true to life, and the drama explains to us as nothing else could what Tolstoy wished to do, as well as what he actually did. It is Tolstoy's view of himself, of the obstacles that confronted him, and of the darkness that surrounded him.

The play revolves around Nicholas, the head of the house, who is endeavoring to live the truly Christian life. He is

discussed and misunderstood by nearly everyone, and the play begins with his wife, her sister, and her sister's husband lamenting the fact that if Nicholas continues in the way he is going, their large property will be wasted and the family beggared. "I understand Liberalism, County Councils, the Constitution, schools, reading-rooms,

...

as well

as Socialism, strikes, and an eight-hour day;" says the brother-in-law, "but what is this? Explain it to me." "But he told you about it yesterday," says the wife.

"I confess I did not understand. The Gospels, the Sermon on the Mount-and that churches are unnecessary! But then how is one to pray, and all that?"

"Yes," answers the wife.

"That is the worst of it.

He would destroy everything, and give us nothing in its place." (13)

She goes on to tell how, after his sister died, Nicholas became quite morose, was always talking about death, and then fell ill with typhus. When he recovered he was a changed man. He became indifferent to his family and possessed of one idea. He read the gospels for days on end and did not sleep. He would get up at night to read and to make notes and extracts. He went to see bishops, hermits, and others to consult with them about religion. Curiously enough, and this is what his family could not understand,— the more religious he became the less he could tolerate the churches. He refused to fast or to go to mass or to take communion. "Thoroughly inconsistent!" exclaims his sister-in-law. "If he denies the Church, what does he want the Gospels for?" the brother-in-law asks, and the worried wife answers, "so that we should live according to the Gospels and the Sermon on the Mount, and give everything away." (14) She explains that no matter how much the peasants steal, Nicholas gives them everything. Moreover, he seems to have lost his affection for his own family and declares that it is better that the children

should leave school altogether. When all the family gather together and begin discussing with him his ideas, he says to their utter amazement: "One should give everything away. Not only the forest we do not use and hardly ever see, but even our clothes and our bread." The sister-inlaw exclaims: "What! And the children's too?" "Yes," answers Nicholas, "and the children's too. And not only our bread, but ourselves. Therein lies the whole teaching of Christ. One must strive with one's whole strength to give oneself away.” (15)

The priest of the neighborhood, who comes to discuss matters with him, endeavors to defend the doctrines, Sacraments, and Saints of the Church. "That's what is terrible!" exclaims Nicholas. "Each one of us has to save his own soul, and has to do God's work himself, but instead of that we busy ourselves saving other people and teaching them. And what do we teach them? We teach them now, at the end of the nineteenth century, that God created the world in six days, then caused a flood, and put all the animals in an ark, and all the rest of the horrors and nonsense of the Old Testament . . . it is dreadful! A child, fresh and ready to receive all that is good and true, asks us what the world is, and what its laws are; and we, instead of revealing to him the teaching of love and truth that has been given to us, carefully ram into his head all sorts of horrible absurdities and meannesses, ascribing them all to God. Is that not terrible? It is as great a crime as man can commit. And we you and your Church-do this! Forgive me!" (16)

After the priest, rather humiliated by the discussion, has gone, the sister-in-law says to Nicholas that even his own wife doesn't understand him or believe him. "She can't believe you. . . . Just you try and explain it to her! She will never understand, nor shall I, nor anyone else in the world, that one must care for other people and aban

don one's own children. Go and try to explain that to Mary!" (17) Nicholas does try to explain it, but Mary, although full of the deepest affection for him, attentive to his every wish, willing to sacrifice her own self completely for him, dare not understand. Her opposition is intuitive, and a barrier rises between them which cannot be passed over or penetrated. She fears to be attentive to what he says; yet she tries to be so. When she urges him to help his son to enter the Horse-Guards and to give him money to do so, he answers: "The labour of others does not belong to me. To give him money, I must first take it from others. I have no right to do that, and I cannot do it! As long as I manage the estate I must manage it as my conscience dictates; and I cannot give the fruits of the toil of the overworked peasants to be spent on the debaucheries of Life-Guardsmen. Take over my property, and then I shall not be responsible!" (18) The discussion ends with their mutual misunderstanding even greater than before.

In the next act Mary says: "He wants to give away everything. He wishes me now, at my age, to become a cook and a washerwoman." (19) She then reads a letter just received from Nicholas. He writes: "I cannot continue to live as we have been doing," and he suggests the following plan: "We shall give our land to the peasants, retaining only 135 acres besides the orchards and kitchengarden and the meadow by the river. We will try to work ourselves, but will not force one another, nor the children. What we keep should still bring us in about £50 a year." (20) This plan only adds to her anxiety and mental distress, and irritations grow on all sides. The entire family is restless and agitated. They all discuss the problem with him and quarrel with him. They distort and misconstrue all that he says and no one seems to understand. His wife confesses that she can't answer him and that at bottom it is terrible for her because it seems to her

he is right. Yet she cannot follow him, dare not follow him for the love of her children.

At last, they import one of the higher clergy to discuss matters with him. It is a remarkable scene-very humiliating, one would imagine, to the leader of the Church. Unable to refute Nicholas, or even to meet fairly his arguments, he abandons the gospels and shifts onto ground that is cold and barren, void of all life and soul. Not to the teaching of Jesus, but to the Church and to the priesthood he demands submission. You must act, the reverend father declares to Nicholas, "as behooves a son of the Church. You have a family and children, and you must keep and educate them in a way suitable to their position." "Why?" demands Nicholas. "Because," the father answers, "God has placed you in that position. If you wish to be charitable, be charitable by giving away part of your property and by visiting the poor." Nicholas then asks, "But how is it that the rich young man was told that the rich cannot enter the Kingdom of Heaven?" Whereupon the priest answers, "It is said, 'If thou wouldest be perfect.' "But," cries Nicholas, "I do wish to be perfect. The Gospels say, 'Be ye perfect as your Father in Heaven.. ."" Unable to answer him, the priest rises to leave, declaring that Nicholas is afflicted with spiritual pride. "Since you know everything better than I do,” he says, "we had better end our conversation. Only, once again, I must entreat you in God's name to come to your senses. You have gone cruelly astray and are ruining yourself." (21)

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What is perhaps more to the point, the priest brings with him a notary. It is intended that Nicholas shall make over his property to his wife, but, when he sees their real purpose, he cries: "And what am I to do? Don't I know why that wretched man-dressed up in his cassock and wearing that cross-was sent for, and why Alexândra Ivânovna brought