in Tê-Kaí-que-et, the connection is more intimate than that expressed by Tè-Té, and cal implies the greater emphasis of its clause. Indeed, the incressive force of kal is clearly seen in the combinations, πολλά τε καὶ καλὰ ἔργα ἀπεδείξατο, κ.τ.λ. And yet more so when the universal is connected with the particular, as ἄλλοι τε καὶ ὁ Σωκράτης—ἄλλως τε καί= quum aliter, tum. Again, when a stronger emphasis is needed in the second clause, kaì dǹ καὶ is substituted for καὶ, e.g., ἄλλα τε σχεῖν χωρία καὶ δὴ Kaì Añμνov.-HEROD. vi. 137. Kai-kai too, too: not only, καὶ Λήμνον.—ΗEROD. καὶκαὶ but also and gives to the clauses to which it is joined a more forcible and independent meaning than TÈ-TÉ; SO that it is used where clauses of a different nature, or opposed to each other, are to be connected, e.g., aрxovтes μέν εἰσι καὶ οἱ βουκόλοι τῶν βοῶν καὶ οἱ ἱπποφορβοὶ τῶν ἵππων κ.τ.λ. -XEN. Cyr. i. I, 2. = If we examine any paragraph in a Greek classic author, we shall find that almost every sentence is connected with its predecessor by a particle; whereas, in English, this connection is often left to be supplied mentally from the context. Take, for instance, XEN. Anab. iv. iii. 27. This is a piece of narration: and fourteen consecutive sentences are ushered in by the particle dé. The Greek relative plays a much less conspicuous and important part in the connection of sentences than the Latin. Thus, in Greek composition, sentences often begin, ταῦτα δὲ εἰπόντες, μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα, ἐπειδὴ δὲ ταῦτα éyéveTo, where qui would be used in Latin. It is, however, used in clauses expressing the ground or reason, in place of the demonstrative with yàp, e.g., XEN. Mem. iii. v. 15. πότε γὰρ οὕτως Ἀθηναῖοι, ὥσπερ Λακεδαιμόνιοι, ἢ πρεσβυτέρους αἰδέσονται;—οἳ ἀπὸ τῶν πατέρων ἄρχονται καταφρονεῖν τῶν πατέρων, κ.τ.λ. It would be futile to pursue this topic here; as the sense of the particle is liable to almost indefinite variation with the context. It is hoped that the ensuing exercises will illustrate their force. They are well explained in JELF'S Gr. Gr., p. 361, seqq. III. THE ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.- - The want of inflexions necessitates an almost unvarying adherence to the grammatical order of words in English composition. On the contrary, the metaphysical structure is usually adopted in the classical languages, because the connexion and construction of words is denoted by their inflexions. The subject generally stands first, the predicate (verb or adjective with elva) last. The object usually precedes the predicate, and the substantive its attribute. Such a collocation is by no means accidental. The idea represented by the noun substantive is naturally prior to our conception of the qualities we attribute to it; and the mind notices the existence of an external object before it notices its own action, or the action of anything external, upon it. Hence the general rule that the governed precedes the governing word. The rule, however, is simply empirical, and is liable to almost endless modification under the influence of three principles; those of Emphasis, Antithesis, and Euphony. Emphasis variously arranges the emphatic word (I.) between some qualifying or descriptive expression; or at the commencement, or at the end, of a sentence (II.) I. e.g. DEMOSTH. Olynth. В. 13. toλλǹv dǹ tǹv petáστασιν καὶ μεγάλην δεικτέον τὴν μεταβολήν. The word δεικτέον emphasises μεγάλην, as will easily be seen if we place deiкTéov after μeraßoλýv. The particle δὴ performs the same office for μετάστασιν. Αρ ̓ οὖν τοῖς ποιηταῖς ἡμῖν ἐπιστατητέον τὴν τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ εἰκόνα ἤθους ἐμποιεῖν τοῖς ποιήμασιν ; PLATO. The inter position of εἰκόνα emphasises ἀγαθοῦ, and gives rapidity to the question. Τὸ μὲν πρῶτον ἀγαπητὸν ἦν παρὰ τοῦ δήμου τῶν ἄλλων ἑκάστῳ καὶ τιμῆς καὶ ἀρχῆς καὶ ἀγαθοῦ τινος μεταλαβεῖν.-DEMOSTH. Olynth. iii. 37. Εκάστῳ is directly dependent upon ἀγαπητὸν, but παρὰ τοῦ δήμου is allowed precedence, from the courtesy due to an emphatic term. (2). Ἀλλὰ μὴν καὶ ἀδικῆσαί γε ῥᾷον τῷ τέλος πριαμένῳ ἢ τῷ ἀνδράποδα μισθουμένῳ. Αργύριον μὲν γὰρ πῶς καὶ φωράσειεν ἄν τις τὸ δημόσιον ἐξαγόμενον; ἀνδράποδα δὲ σεσημασμένα τῷ δημοσίῳ σημάντρῳ —πῶς ἄν τις ταῦτα κλέψειεν ; Moreover, it is easier for the farmer of customs than for the lessee of slaves to cheat. For how can any man detect the embezzlement of public money? and how, on the other hand, can any man possibly steal slaves who have been branded with the national seal?' In this passage, the emphatic terms are ȧpyúptov and ἀνδράποδα. And they accordingly appear at the head of their respective clauses. Antithesis closely associates the antithetical terms, in order to give fagrancy to contrast; e.g., ποικίλῃ μὲν ποικίλους ψυχῇ καὶ παναρμονίους διδοὺς λόγους, ἁπλοῦς δὲ ἁπλῇ.-PLATO, Phedr. p. 277, C. With this view, even the article is severed from its noun, Αἰσχύνει πόλιν τὴν αὐτὸς αὐτοῦ, and the preposition from its case, e.g., ἐν ἄλλοτε ἄλλῃ for ἄλλοτε ἐν ἄλλῃ.BUTTM. Gr. Gr., p. 451. See STALLBAUM on Plat. Hipp. Maj. 299, D. ÿdù ĥdéos ὁτιοῦν ὁτουοῦν, where the collocation is fully illustrated. An exposition of the influence of Euphony as a modifying principle in composition, would require great development. It is easily tested by the student. Let any paragraph be taken from the Olynthiacs or Philippics, or the Republic of Plato,* and the order of the words. changed. The result and its inference will alike be obvious. The grammatical order of words is inverted to a much less extent in Greek than in Latin composition, especially in history. If we turn to any passage in the speeches addressed by Demosthenes to the Athenian assembly— Olynth. B. 9, for instance-we shall find that the syntactical sequence of the words is in many sentences but slightly altered; indeed, a whole clause is here and there arranged as the words would stand in English. A figure called Chiasma, from its resemblance to a X, is a favourite device of classic style. Its apparent object is the variety it gives to structure, e.g., Toλλákis ýdový βραχεῖα μακρὰν τίκτει λύπην.—PLATO, Phado, p. 60, Α. Cf. CICERO, Tusc. ii. 4, II. 'Philosophia medetur animis, inanes sollicitudines detrahit, cupiditatibus liberat, pellit timores.' In almost all dependent clauses, a kind of attraction takes place, the object of which is to bring prominently forward the subject of the principal clause. This idiom, which is far more common in Greek than in Latin, is illustrated by Dawes from ARISTOPH. Nub., where Strepsiades says Καί μοι τὸν υἱὸν, εἰ μεμάθηκε τὸν λόγον, The English construction arranges the words eine ei ὁ υἱὸς μεμάθηκε. IV. ELLYPSE. Ellyptical forms are common to all * A tablet was found after Plato's death, in which the words at the beginning of the Republic were transposed in a number of different ways.-QUINTIL. viii. 6, § 63. DIONYS. HAL. de Compos. Verb. p. 208. REISKE. languages; though, in the vernacular, their very familiarity often prevents their recognition as ellyptical. The most noticeable cases of ellypse in Greek composition may be briefly classified as follows: (1) Ellypse of the subject: ἐκήρυξε [sc. ὁ κήρυξ]. ΧΕΝ. Anab. iii. 4, 36. ἕως σημαίνοι τῇ σάλπιγγι [ὁ σαλπιγκτής], vi. 5, 25. So also, ὕει, νίφει, βροντᾷ [sc. ὁ Θεός·] ἔσεισε. THUCYD. V. 52; OVOKOTάČEL. XEN. Cyr. iv. 5, 5. In the above instances, the subject is implied in the predicate; in the following, it is supplied from the context: EK de Tŵv στασίων φόνος ἐγγίνεται, ἐκ δὲ τοῦ φόνου ἀπέβη [τὰ πρήγ ματα] ἐς μουναρχίην. HEROD. iii. 82. Πορεύσομαι εὐθὺς πρὸς τὰ βασίλεια, καὶ ἢν μὲν ἀνθίστηται [ὁ βασιλεύς]. XEN. Cyr. ii. 4, 24. Add to these, the frequent ellypse of Tis indefinite, e.g. PLATO, Crit. p. 49, C. cf. Cic. de Orat. i. 8, 30; where a corresponding ellypse of quis occurs. (2) Ellypse of eivai, e.g. in proverbs, which all languages couch in brief energetic forms, e. g. xaλeπà và Kaλá. ARIST. Eth. In expressing ideas of necessity or duty, e. g. ἀνάγκη, χρεών, θέμις, κ.τ.λ. ἀγωνιστέον· also with καιρὸς, ὥρα e.g. ὥρα ἤδη ἀπιέναι. Also with certain adjectives, e.g. ἕτοιμος, φροῦδος, πρόθυμος, οἷός τε, δυνατὸς, ῥᾴδιον, χαλεπόν in constructions by attraction, as ἀμήχανον ὅσον. τετραμ (3) Ellypse of a substantive defined by an attributive, whether adjective, participle, or genitive, e. g. Tò тεтρаμμévov Tâν Bapẞápwv. HEROD. vi. 113. The copious use of these neuter participles is one of the most characteristic traits of Thucydides *; e. g. Tò dediòs 'fear'; Tò Oapoovv, 'confidence'; Tồ tiμwμevov tŶs tóλews. ii. 63, 'the honour paid to the state'; ev τ μn μeλETŵvт, in their not practising,' i. 142; Tò èπíov, an attack,' v. 7. ἐπίον, 6 * Col. Mure's remarks on these peculiarities (vol. v. 'Style of Thucydides') will be read with great interest. |