What is the temperature of the air in the different months of the year? Which is the maximum and minimum of heat in our country, and when do they usually occur? What is the corresponding state of temperature in other countries? What are its causes? How do the winds originate, where do they come from, and go to? What are the principal currents of air on the globe? Their causes? What weather is caused by the winds in our country? To which winds is our country chiefly exposed, and why? Origin of fogs and clouds? What is dampness? What causes rain? These and similar questions come so near home to man, that it would prove enormous dullness, if he did not ask them himself, and reflect, on answering them. No doubt that such stupidity is still frequent; but no one will doubt what is the indispensable duty of the common school in the premises.

VII. ASTRONOMY, BY A. DIESTERWEG.

1. Is instruction about the nature of the universe about astronomy, expedient? Most certainly; we require the same from every man. To any one who does not admit that this is requisite, I address the following questions: Has that man an idea of the work of the Creator, and of his relation to both, who is ignorant of astronomy? or even, is he a man? No; he is like a brute confined to a narrow sphere, and has not even learned to make the right use of his upright stature, and of his sense for the universe, the eye; he has not enlarged his faculty of observing beyond the smallest compass, satisfied the inborn desire of knowledge, developed his intellect; he might be compared to a mole that closes its eyes to the light. We justly pity the poor man who has had no opportunity to learn the wonders of the starry sky; we despise him, if he has neglected an opportunity; we blame indignantly whatever would prevent his acquiring that sublime and elevating knowledge.

2. What should every body know of the universe?

He should know of infinite space, its laws, the qualities of the sun, the moon, and of our solar system, the relation of the planets to the sun, the position of the earth relatively to the same, its rotations and all that result therefrom, as years, seasons, day and night, in short, the substance of popular astronomy. 3. How is the pupil to learn this?

By observation-not by books; for from these we get empty words, hollow notions and phrases; books may at best assist the preceding instruction, but they can never replace it—ask among the "educated" people, what ideas they have in this respect, though they have heard of all and can talk of all. The true, vivid and moving ideas of the great subjects in question are exclusively acquired by an intuitive, developing instruction.

4. What, therefore, is the teacher to do?

He stimulates the pupil to observations; he makes him conscious of what has been observed, by illustrative questions and conversations; he draws his attention to the sublime phenomena of the sky by day and night; he talks over with him such observations as can be made daily all the year round on sun and stars; he fixes these observations in good order, and in clear, well defined propositions. This is the first step. Scientifically expressed, the pupil advances to the point of view of what appears to the senses-of spherical astronomy.

This point being attained, considerately and firmly, (we must know first what appears, before we learn what is,) then reflection follows, whether the things really are such as they appear. The pupil advances from appearance to essence or nature. This step is very important, not only in astronomy, but in all

things, and astronomy, for the very reason that it furnishes the clearest and greatest example of this important progress in human education, is of inestimable value. The pupil learns the nature of the things; his perceiving is raised to knowing. Disorder becomes order, variety uniformity, and chaos rule and law. One power reigns in the universe, every thing obeys his laws, and every where there results order, harmony, development, life; and each heavenly body becomes a part of the universe in its infinite sublimity and brightness.

It is worth while, not only to hear or to read of that, but to know and to understand it. The pupils now advance to theoretic and the physical astronomy. At last there commences the construction of the whole, at least of our solar system, out of the centre. From the beginning, instruction proceeds from the periphery, from the point on which the pupil stands; the individual is himself the centre, around which every thing is grouped, and to which every thing is referred; the observation is subjective. Afterward, it is made objective, and man recognizes himself, the human race and the globe, as a part of the infinite universe.

5. What has the teacher to attend to more particularly?

This necessary instruction being still uncommon, we may give here several suggestions:

(a) He excludes every thing that can not be brought to sight.

(b) He goes always from observation and experience over to reflection and deduction. Astronomy is an inductive science; hence teaching follows the inductive method. The teacher does not "dociren," (teach or lecture,) he guides; he does not say one single sentence that could not be found by the pupils themseves; for such as can not be found by them-except historical notices-are not fit for them.

(c) He fixes the results in the most definite and pregnant expressions.

(d) He brings the things observed, thought, spoken of, to view on the blackboard, and directs the pupils to similar representations. But he does not begin with drawing, this is secondary to the finding of perceptions. He employs every where the pupil's imagination; astronomy is an excellent means to lead it on a sure and safe way. Drawing proves the correctness of the ideas, therefore it should not precede. If the pupil makes a correct drawing, it is the surest proof of his having viewed and reflected right.

(e) He abstains throughout from any use of models, (telluria, lunaria, etc.) They serve afterward as proof, but they may be entirely done without. Who uses them in the beginning, is wrong; who requires the pupils to transfer that which is represented by those models, to the universe, requires what is impossible; nobody succeeds. The value of models, even of the best, is very much confined. They show the apparent things better than the real; but even for the former they are not necessary. The teacher may sometimes, by means of a larger and smaller globe, a candle, etc., represent every thing needed. But the perception and representation of what is going on in space, even with shut eyes, is what is indispensable, because it is the principal thing. Whoever does not succeed so far, does not really know or understand.

He who wants to know more, may read my "Astronomical Geography," (Astronomische Geographie,) fifth edition, Berlin, 1855, 11⁄2 thaler. (We may add, that this book of Diesterweg's is universally considered as a master-piece of method.-ED.)

(Continued in Number XI.)

a

XVI. EDUCATIONAL MISCELLANY AND INTELLIGENCE.

GERMANY.

[A portion of the following intelligence, suggestions and statistics as to education in Germany, were communicated by Dr. WIMMER, for insertion in the previous number of the Journal.-ED.]

PRUSSIA.

NEW REGULATIONS RESPECTING COMMON SCHOOLS.

The three "REGULATIVES," as they are called, for the common schools in Prussia, of the 1, 2 and 3 October, 1854 concern, the first, the Normal Schools, the second the "preparanden-schulen " or Pro-Seminaries, the third the elementary schools of but one class, or, with other words, the common village school with one teacher.

The principle on which these regulatives are based, is that the common school (volkeschuls,) "has to prepare for real life according to its given and existing relations, and not, vice versa, that life is to be formed after the school." The wants of this actual life are the only measure for the future activity of the common school. Not the possibility of the successful promotion of civilization, (bildung,) by the one or the other element of education, by this or that method, has to decide henceforth on its being admitted in the common school, but merely the well-known and unavoidable wants of those classes of population, for which the school has to provide the principal, if not the only education. Those measures have indeed special reference to the village schools, but they are at the same time to be regarded as "fundamental" for all other common schools in town and country. Even there they are first to be acted upon completely, before further and higher steps are allowed. The regulatives are not a transitory, but an important turning point in the whole system of common school education in Prussia.

"The movement of ideas which for a long time has been going on in common school education, is in many and important respects brought to an end. It is now high time to do away with what is superfluous and erroneous, and in its stead to proscribe now, even officially, what has been felt long since as necessary by those who know and value the wants of a truly christian education, and has been found really useful by faithful and experienced teachers. As the whole age has arrived on a boundary where a decisive turning rotation has become necessary and real; so the school, unless it will perish by clinging to the past, must enter fresh and refreshing into the new career. The elementary school, in which the greatest part of the people receive the foundation, if not the whole, of their education, has not to serve an abstract system or an idea of pedagogical science, but has to prepare for practical life in church, family, vocation, community and state. The understanding and the practicing of their contents, and an education through them is the aim. The method is merely a means without value in itself: the "formal" education flows itself from the understanding and practicing of these justified and enlisted contests. Henceforth in the elementary school, a right selection and strict limitation of the subjects of inspection, as

well as a good organization of the school are rather to be attended to, than the invention and application of new methods. "For the elementary schools which are divided in several parallel or graded classes, the same principles so far as they regard character and tendency of elementary instruction, are every where and without variation to be applied, and have to form the only basis for the plan of lessons, than to be enlarged in their extent."

In the plan of lessons proposed, of the 26 hours of instruction, no time is set apart for geography. "Perfect learning of the contents of the Reader, (text-book,) and ability to write them clearly, and in connection to do this with one's, i. e., the pupil's own words is required:" "If the circumstances admit to have 6 hours of instruction on the full days, (Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Friday,) 3 hours more may be applied to 'vaterlandskunde,' (knowledge of Germany and Prussia,) and 'naturkunde.' If no such particular hours can be made out, the communication of the necessary knowledge of the kind must be given in explaining those sections of the reader, which point thereto. But where there are particular lessons, a good reader will also suffice with regard to the material knowledge; yet then in connection with the reader, instruction in geography may be made more lively by the use of maps, and may more apply to the self action of the children."

As to history, the chief reliance must likewise be laid on the reader. The new readers contain already no longer "history," but simply "pictures" from the history of the fatherland and particularly of Prussia, (vaterlandskunde.)

As to grammar, the regulatives "exclude from the elementary school separate instruction in the same," and say that theoretical knowledge is not required from children. Thus Kellner's analytical method, in which grammatical instruction has the Reader as its centre, will become the general one. (K. is a province school counselor in Prussia, and the reviewer of the grammatical part in Nacke's pedagogical Jahresbericht.) [Kellner says: If grammar can not be entirely excluded from our common schools, it must however not occupy the first place or give exclusively form and contents to the instruction in the mother tongue; but it has to serve simply as a means for easier understanding, and to give those few rules and principles which are indispensable as basis of the practical abilities, i. e., reading and writing. Instruction in the vernacular language has to lean upon nature and the natural development of the faculty of speaking. and must aim at teaching language by immediate use and intercourse, and principally at arousing and confining by the same taste, "sprachgefühl," (literally the feeling of language, i. e., the immediate perception of what is right and proper.)]

The aim of instruction in the normal schools is to be the "education and abil. ity required from the teacher of a common elementary school of one class." Included is a simple and futile instruction in "vaterlandskunde," limited to the boundaries of the elementary school, so, however, that the pupil teachers become masters of that branch in all respects. With this view the geographical contents of the Reader are to be attended to. "General history is no longer to be taught in normal schools, because the pupil teachers have not the necessary knowledge of other preparatory branches, nor the time sufficient for a thorough study. Therefore only the history of Germany shall be taught thoroughly and earnestly, with a particular regard for the history of Prussia, and for that of the province. Every where a regard for the history of civilization must prevail, and all must be done in a Christian spirit." The most necessary communications from

general history shall be "connected partly with the Bible, partly with German history in biographies of great men and events." Of course, it must be based

on geography.

Whatever the regulatives contain with respect to religious instruction, in which they are very particular, is omitted here.

Prange, the reviewer of geography and history in the Pedagogical Jahresbericht, thinks that the results of this new system will be seen in the normal schools in half a dozen of years, but that it will take longer to observe them in the common schools.

The regulatives have found many adversaries, e. g., in Low's Monatsschrift, etc., but the most inimical is Diesterweg, who has published three pamphlets against them. Other regulatives of a similar import, i. e., for a stricter and more defined elementary instruction, have been given in Hesse-Cassel, Bavaria, Mecklenburg, Wurtemberg, Nassau, and may be expected throughout Germany.

PLAN OF LESSONS IN GYMNASIA OR CLASSICAL SCHOOLS.-A late decree of the Prussian government in relation to schools fixes the following plan of lessons for gymnasia:

"As instruction in Hebrew, singing and gymnastics, is given out of the ordinary school hours, those lessons are not included in the above plan." "Dispensation from studying Greek is only allowed in towns where there is no higher burgher or real school; since in such a case the gymnasium must serve general purposes. Such pupils are, however, to be notified that a knowledge of Greek is indispensable for passing the examination for admission to the university, (Abiturienten-examen.") "Natural history is to be taught in classes V. and VI., only when there is a very able teacher for it." "In other cases geography may be taught instead, with as much natural history introduced as possible. The same is permissible in class IV."

Another decree, (April 10, 1856,) recommends to the principal of the higher burgher schools a more frequent and methodical learning of words, not alphabetically, but according to analogy. If the pupils are not advanced enough to be introduced formally into etymological studies, they should receive instruction orally in the derivation of words.

REFORM OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS.-The government has determined on a reform in the normal schools, and has called on the provincial school counselors to take the advice of the most distinguished principals of real schools on some of the points.