We are also told that uric acid never occurs free in normal urine, while damaluric and damolic acids are given as normal constituents; whereas uric acid is a normal constituent, and damaluric and damolic acids never occur in human urine, and only on one recorded occasion have these latter been obtained from the urine of a cow.

On the subject of the brain Mr. Ralfe reproduces that which has long since been disproved, viz., Fremy's conclusions* regarding the presence of so-called oleo-phosphoric acid, a body which received in Fremy's hands not a single complete analysis, and which was undoubtedly a mixture of other substances with lecithine. This is the more remarkable, for Fremy, in claiming the existence of this body, overlooked or ignored a far more important discovery by Couerbe, viz., his cephalote, which, however, Couerbe did not obtain pure; had he done so he would have obtained the kephalin of to-day. Unfortunately an accident induced Couerbe to assert the presence of sulphur in his substance, and on this account there was denied to him that credit to which he was so fairly entitled.

It is a pity that, in our acknowledged state of ignorance as regards the chemistry of the body, such analyses as the following should be given, of an organ regarding which, in the past, our information has been so imperfect :

But this analysis, given by C. H. Ralfe in his book, is no worse than many similar ones to be found elsewhere. Among these extractives and salts leucin and uric acid are erroneously included. The author falls into the same mistakes regarding bilirubin and biliverdin as Dr. L. Brunton, and alarms us by saying that the breath in certain diseases contains chloride of sodium, uric acid, and ammonium urates. In this book, also, as well as in the "Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory," the spectroscopical characters of hematin, so beautifully worked out by Stokes and others, are incorrectly described.

He

One more point, and we have done with Mr. Ralfe. writes-"The inorganic substances occurring in the animal

*

Ann. Chem., ii., 463; also Journ. de Pharm., xxvii., 453.

tissues and fluids are not chemically combined with the organic principles." The only exception he allows, in doubt, is alkali albuminate; we had always thought bones, above all things, established the fact that some at least of the inorganic substances are in rather strong combination with the organic principles, while, as a matter of fact, so strong is the combination between kephalin (CH,,NPO13) and certain salts with which it is combined in brain-matter, by virtue of its alkaloidal constitution, that it can only be obtained in the pure state after the destruction of such combinations by hydrochloric acid, which has the power of uniting with it to form a hydrochlorate.

*

We now come to a treatise by Prof. Karl B. Hofmann, of Graz, and we find that in the 144 pages forming the first published half of this book there is more space devoted to the consideration of "nuclein" than to the whole brain chemistry. Moreover, although Thudichum's researches on this subject have been published since March, 1875, he dismisses them with the following words :-"Thudichum's newly-published list of numerous compounds can here only find mention." In keeping with such imperfection, we are not surprised to find the same errors that we have already pointed out as present in previously mentioned works. To be just, we will point out that whenever an opportunity is presented of entering into an enunciation of the structural chemistry of commonly well-known substances, the author never fails to do so; as an instance of which eight pages are devoted to the structural formula of glycerin, a matter which is as far removed from any advance in physiological chemistry as any matter well can be.

That our readers may not deem us unreasonable in demanding for Thudichum's researches in brain chemistry that respect which they merit, we would point out that, while our position has personally associated us with this work, we are obviously precluded from entering in any detail into the subject. We would nevertheless explain that it has been conducted, during a period of five years, on such a scale and in such a manner as can only be secured by the outlay of money in the power of Government alone to provide. As a consequence, it stands out pre-eminently as one of the greatest researches in physiological chemistry of modern time, and has given such an impetus to this science as has not been felt since the days when Wöhler constructed urea,

* Lehrbuch der Zoochemie, von KARL B. HOFMANN, Prof. der Phys. Chem. au der Universität Graz (Wien, 1876).

and when Liebig gave to the science a new meaning and a new method. That this opinion will prevail ere long there can be no doubt; meanwhile it is the privilege of those who are more intimately acquainted with the work to assert their conscientious conviction of its value. It is indeed painful, after such reflections, to turn to a "Jahresbericht" of animal chemistry* for the year 1875, to find that the only notice afforded in these pages of Thudichum's work is taken from the "Centralblatt," which in its turn derived its knowledge from the "Chemical News." In the latter was published an abstract of a summary given orally at an ordinary meeting of the Chemical Society of London. It further appears that a communication had been made to Dr. Maly by Dr. Dreschfeld, of Manchester, whose name figures on the cover of this "Jahresbericht." Dr. Maly concludes his notice with these unworthy words: "The critical remarks appended by Dreschfeld to his report, viz., that throughout impure smeary masses formed the bases for Thudichum's new substances and new names, cause the omission of so extensive an account to be a matter of little regret.-M."

Leaving the immediate criticism of special research and current literature, we would dwell for a moment upon the accepted doctrine that the best work and the greatest number of results issue from German laboratories. Without being desirous of entering into a controversy on this matter, we wish to indicate that there are workers in England who appreciate to the full all that Liebig appreciated of the methods of science, and who are, moreover, capable of carrying out those methods. There is an universal lack of scientific work, and especially of research in physiological chemistry; but in any comparison between Germany and England, we are by no means disposed to concede the laurel to Germany. To those who are intimately acquainted with German scientific literature the fact is patent that the enormous mass of work published represents also Russian, Polish, Austrian, Hungarian, and Belgian, nay Italian, workers. It is also well known that as regards the large percentage of Russian workers, these are enabled, at the expense of their Government, to study science in Germany, and for the last twenty years all their work in physiology, chemistry, anatomy, and microscopy has been published in German periodicals in

Jahresbericht über die Fortschritter der Thier-Chemie, von Dr. RICHARD MALY, Professor in Graz. Wiesbaden, 1876.

their own names. Confirmatory of our remarks we here give the following statistics:*-There were at Berlin at the beginning of the present year 1884 German students, including 162 owing no allegiance to the empire. The favourite university of the Germans is Leipzig, which has 2575 Imperial German students, of whom 939 are Saxons and 1143 Prussians. Third in rank, if judged only by the number of students, is Munich, with 1087 Imperial German students, of whom 912 are Bavarians and 113 Prussians. The distribution of students among the four principal faculties is as follows:

The difference between the sums of these columns and the above figures give us the number of foreigners not Germans studying in each university as follows:-Berlin, 259; Leipzig, 350; Munich, 116. Berlin has therefore a total of 2143 students; Leipzig, 2925; and Munich, 1203.

Now, if any comparison is to be instituted between German and English work, all these accessories on the former side must be deducted, or to English must be added American, Australian, and Indian work.

The inferior character of some of the German work seems to be referable, in part, to the system of their university teaching, for it is a fact that the professors of medical chemistry are often associated with applied chemistry; that is to say, their work lies between general chemistry on the one hand, and medical chemistry on the other. When it is therefore considered that the medical men are far behind Englishmen in their acquaintance with Materia Medica, and that these same men place in the hands of students work of a severe character in science, it is not surprising that the results should in many cases be so deplorable.

Let it be understood that this Essay is in reference to Physiological Chemistry, and that, in writing of certain untrustworthy work emanating from Germany, we have no wish to cast an imputation upon the mass of good work in

Literattische Wochenbericht, of Leipzig, of February 24, 1876.

pure chemical science of which the nation is so justly proud.

We have advanced, in the foregoing pages, our conviction that in Physiology and its Chemistry there is a necessity for reform, and have substantiated our view by facts. We have shown that, here and there, men have lost sight of those ruling principles underlying all science, and have plunged blindly into the mazes of uncerebrated research, the conflicting results of which have reduced them to a compromise between their intellect and their honour. In pursuing research we must ever bear in mind the ultimate object of physiological chemistry, and the means by which this object may be attained.

Liebig assumed the existence of a vital force, powerful to develope from the seed the plant, and from the egg the bird; but he yet acknowledged, above all men, that the actual processes of life, with all their complications of function, were based upon the same laws which exist between matter and force in the chemist's laboratory. We cannot therefore but regard those who hold the opinion that there is something in life which renders negative all our conclusions drawn from laboratory experiments, and nullifies all our hypotheses of functions, as men who fail to grasp thoroughly the conditions upon which life depends.

The object of physiological chemistry, then, is the reduction to general laws of those phenomena which, in their multifarious co-relations, constitute the functions of life, in health and disease. To prosecute this study with hope of success it is essential that we should first become acquainted with the composition and constitution of those substances which are elaborated in the various tissues, organs, and fluids of the living body, and of which these are themselves constituted. It is only by means of such knowledge that we can be enabled to trace out the intricate concatenations of the various parts of the animal body, and of those metamorphoses which are constantly in process in the living laboratory.

From this it will be seen that the method in the study of Pathology is necessarily of the same order as that employed in Physiology, and the results of these parallel investigations appear as the expressions of health and disease.

In drawing towards the close of our Essay we admit that in the Science of Physiological Chemistry there are pending matters for research which might fairly be undertaken by men of ordinary attainments, at very little expense; but