WINSTON'S CUSATIVE ENCYCLOPEDIA LOOSE-LEAF VOLUME V Gastrula (gas-trö'la), or GASTREA, The largest engine of this type ever prothe name given by Haeckel duced was only 300 horsepower, and the to the hypothetical larva which he as- death of the inventor left it unperfected. sumed to be the starting point for the Of the explosion type the Holzwarth Metazoa or multicellular animals. The turbine is the most efficient. In this the gastrula arises from a blastosphere or combustion chamber is intermittently filled globular mass of cells which begin to fold with a mixture of gas and air admitted at in at one point until a thimble-shaped or- the base of the machine. Ignition, exploganism is formed. This individual he sion and increase in pressure of the burnt called a gastrula. It consists of two gases and their expansion through a primitive layers, an outer layer, ectoderm, nozzle result, after which the gases act on and an inner, endoderm. Consult Haeckel's a horizontal turbine wheel. There are five Studies on the Gastroa Theory and his work on the calcareous sponges. Gas Turbine, a turbine engine operating by the energy of exploded gases, first invented by Réné Armengaud in France, in 1906. Gas tur Holzwarth Gas Turbine.-Sectional Elevation. A, compressed air chamber. B, compressed gas chamber. C. combustion chamber. D, valve admitting compressed air to combustion chamber. E, nozzle valve admitting exploding gas to rim of motor F. bines are now of two types, the constant pressure and the explosion. The Armengaud engine is of the former type. The gas and air are compressed separately and the mixture admitted in a constant stream into a combustion chamber, where it is ignited by an incandescent platinum wire. or ten similar explosion chambers arranged in a circle at the base of the turbine, and these act one after the other or in series. When the combustion chamber has been filled with compressed air, compressed gas is driven in, while the nozzle valve remains closed. When the gas is ignited the valve is forced open and the pressure of the gases is transformed into kinetic energy. After each explosion the chamber is cleared and cooled by fresh air. The turbine is provided with a horizontal governor shaft driven by a screw gearing. To this shaft are keyed the main governor, the emergency governor for preventing ignition, a tachometer, the ignition mechanism and the gear for operating a vertical oil distributor. Gates (gats), HORATIO, an American soldier, born in England in 1728. At the capture of Martinique he was aide-de-camp to General Monkton, and he was with Braddock when the latter was defeated in 1755. On the conclusion of peace he purchased an estate in Virginia, on which he resided until the Revolutionary war in 1775. He was at the head of the American army of_the north when the British general Burgoyne was forced to surrender his whole army at Saratoga (1777), though most of the credit for this victory belonged to the preceding commander, General Schuyler. In 1780, after the capture of General Lincoln by Clinton, at Charleston, Gates received the chief command of the southern districts, but was badly defeated two months later by Cornwallis at Camden. He was then superseded by General Greene and brought to court Gates Gauge martial, but was finally acquitted, and Gatling-gun. See Machine-gun. town of Russia, government reinstated in his command in 1782 after He then rethe capture of Cornwallis. Gatshina, GATCHINA (gat-chi'na), a tired to Virginia, and in 1790, having emancipated all his slaves, he removed of, and 35 miles s. s. w. of St. Petersburg, on a small lake. It is regularly to New York, where he died in 1806. Gates, MERRILL EDWARDS, educator, built, and contains one of the finest of Pop. born at Warsaw, New York, in the imperial palaces of Russia. 1848. He was principal of the Albany 14,735. Academy, 1870-82, president of Rutgers Gau College, 1882-90, and of Amherst College, 1890-99, and a Congregational minister after 1899. He wrote International Arbitration, Highest Use of Wealth; Sidney Lanier, Poet and Artist, etc. (gou), a German word of doubtful origin, meaning in general district, but in a special sense a district as a political unit, and its inhabitants as a political association. It formed a sort of middle division between the highest parliamentary and unit, the state, and the lowest, the vilGateshead, a parliamentary municipal borough of lage, corresponding in some respects to England, County Durham, on the right the hundred.' The freemen of the Gau bank of the Tyne, opposite Newcastle, met at certain periods, under an elected of which it is practically part, being head, to settle matters relating to the connected with it by three bridges. The public weal; and in the same way the industrial establishments include works head men of the Gauen met to settle where heavy articles in iron, such as matters relating to the state at large. girders, anchors, and chain cables, as In the Frankish Empire the character well as engines, etc., are made; ship- of the Gau was altered, each Gau now building yards, roperies, brass, copper, having as its head one or more royal These and iron foundries, paper, glue, vinegar, officers called grafs or counts. glass, artificial manure, and large chemi- countships became hereditary, and about cal works. In the vicinity are quarries the twelfth century the Gau ceased to Newcastle exist as a political division, though the from which the celebrated grindstones' are obtained, and numerous name has survived in Aargau, Thurgau, collieries. Pop. (1911) 116,928. Gath (Hebrew, wine-press), one of the five royal cities of the Philistines, which, from its situation on the borders of Judah, was of much importance in the wars of the Jews and Philistines. It was the native town of Goliath, and was successively captured by David, Hazael, and Uzziah, who dismantled it. The site cannot be determined with certainty, but it is sometimes identified with etc. Gauchos (gå-ö'chos), natives of the Tell-es-Safieh, between Ekron and Ash- Gauge, GAGE (gaj), STEAM dod. AND WATER, the instruments fixed to engine boilers for registering the force Gatineau (gat-i-nō'), a river of Can- of steam and the level of the water. The ada, Quebec province, the first often consists of a siphon tube, with largest affluent of the Ottawa. rising equal legs, half-filled with mercury. One in some lakes, and flowing almost due end is fastened into a pipe, which enters south to enter the Ottawa nearly oppo- that part of the boiler which contains site Ottawa city. It is not navigable the steam; the other end is open to the more than five miles above the Ottawa atmosphere. The steam, acting on the except by canoes, but its rapid waters mercury in one leg of the gauge, presses are well stocked with fish, and available it down, and the mercury in the other as waterpower. The country through leg rises, the difference between the two which it flows is, however, only partially settled. Gatling (gat'ling), RICHARD JORDAN, columns being the height of mercury which corresponds to the excess of the pressure of the steam in the boiler above inventor, born in Hertford the pressure of the atmosphere; or, in County, North Carolina, in 1818; died in other words, to the effective pressure on 1903. He studied medicine, but never the safety-valve. For high-pressure enpracticed, removing eventually to Hart- gines the steam-gauge usually consists of ford, Connecticut, where he invented a spiral tube into which the steam is several ingenious machines, the most im- admitted. and which becomes less bent The waterportant being the machine gun which the greater the pressure. bears his name. gauge is a vertical glass tube, or flat Gauge case, communicating above and below with the boiler. Gauge-cocks are some times put instead of or in addition to the tubes, for enabling the engineer to verify the level of the water. Gauge, a standard of measurement. Gault After these migrations the Gauls along the banks of the Danube, and in the south of Germany disappeared. Tribes of German origin occupied the whole country as far as the Rhine, and even beyond that river. The Belga, who were As applied to railways, gauge partly German, occupied the northern signifies the distance between the centers part of Gaul, from the Seine and Marne of each pair of rails, which in the ordi- to the British Channel and the Rhine, nary gauge used in the United States is from whence colonists passed over into 4 feet 8 inches. The broad gauge, as Britain, and settled on the coast districts. in the Great Western Railway of Eng- The Celts in Gaul had attained some land, is 7 feet; the Irish, Indian, and degree of cultivation by intercourse with Spanish gauge is 5 feet 6 inches. Special the Greeks and Carthaginians before they narrow gauges have recently been came in contact with the Romans. Those adopted for mountain and mineral lines, of Cisalpine Gaul continued formidable such as the 3 feet 6 inch gauge of the to Rome until after the First Punic war, Norwegian lines. Gauge is also the name when the nation was compelled, as the applied to various contrivances for meas- result of a war of six years, to submit uring any special dimension, such es to the komans (220 B.C.). When Hanthe wire gauge, an oblong plate of steel, nibal marched on Rome they attempted with notches of different widths cut on to shake off the yoke; but the Romans, the edge and numbered, the size of the victorious over the Carthaginians, rewire being determined by trying it in duced them again to submission. Thirtythe different notches until one is found one years later (189 B.C.) their kindred which it exactly fits. The thickness of tribe in Asia, the Galatians, met with the sheet-metal is tried by a similar gauge. same fate; they also were vanquished, Gaul (gal), GALLIA, in ancient geog- and their princes (tetrarchs) became raphy, the country of the Gauls, tributary. In the years 128-122 B.C. the chief branch of the original stock of the Romans conquered the southern part Celts. It extended at one time from the of Gaul along the sea from the Alps to Pyrenees to the Rhine, and included also the Pyrenees, and here established their a part of Italy. Hence it was divided dominion in what was called the Province into Gaul on this side (the Roman side) (Provincia), a name that still exists as of the Alps, or Gallia Cisalpina, and Provence. Not long after Gaulish tribes Gaul beyond the Alps, or Gallia Trans- shared in the destructive incursions of alpina. Later the former was regarded the Cimbri and Teutones on the Roman quite as part of Italy, and the name territory, which were ended by Marius in Gallia was restricted to Transalpine the battles of Aquæ Sextiæ (Aix) in 102, Gaul, or the country nearly correspond- and Vercelli in 101 B.C. On the appointing to modern France. Julius Cæsar, ment of Julius Cæsar to the proconsulabout the middle of the first century ship over the countries bordering on Gaul, B.C., found Transalpine Gaul divided into he resolved to subject all Gaul, and three parts: 1. Aquitania, extending from executed his purpose in less than nine the Pyrenees to the Garonne, chiefly occupied by Iberian tribes; 2. Gallia Celtica, Celtic Gaul, from the Garonne to the Seine and Marne; 3. Gallia Belgica, Belgic Gaul, in the north, extending to the Rhine. Migrations among the Gauls about 397 B.C., and their passage of the Alps, first bring the Gallic nation into the region of history. Having crossed the Alps they fell upon the Etruscans, defeated the Romans at Allia (390 B.C.), and sacked and burned Rome, the capitol, however, being saved by Camillus. More than a century after the burning of Rome, the eastern Gauls, in 280-278 B.C., made three destructive irruptions into Macedonia and Greece. Several tribes pursued their course into Asia Minor, where, under the name of Galatians, they long retained their national peculiarities. years (58-50 B.C.), in eight bloody cam- Gaultheria varying in color from a light gray to a Gautama Gavarni (ga'ta-ma),, a name of Buddha, the founder of See Buddha. Gauntlet, gant let), a glove made Maupin, which led to his engagement by (gant let, originally of chain-mail, later of plate and jointed at the fingers, used as part of the armor of a warrior in former times. Gaur, or GOUR (gour), a ruined city in Hindustan, 60 miles north by west of Murshedabad. Once the capital of Bengal, extending about 7 miles along the old Ganges. Several villages now stand on the site of the city. GOUR, one of the largest of all Gaur, the ox tribe (Bos gaurus or Bibo Jaurus), inhabitating the tain jungles of India, remarkable for the moun extraordinary elevation of its spinal ridge, the absence of a dewlap, and its white stockings,' which reach above the knee. It is so fierce when roused that neither tiger, rhinoceros, nor elephant dare attack it. The hide on the shoulders and hindquarters is sometimes nearly 2 inches in thickness even after being dried, and is therefore much valued for the purpose of being manufactured into shields. The animal is supposed to be incapable of domestication. (gous), KARL FRIEDRICH, & (go-ti-a), THEOPHILE, & French poet and critic, born in 1811 at Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées). He studied painting under Rioult for two years, but gave up the brush for the pen, threw himself vigorously into the Romanticist movement, published a volume of poems in 1830, and for several years worked at general literary criticism. In 1832 appeared his poem Albertus; but his first great success was the romance Mademoiselle de Balzac as secretary. He was afterwards engaged as theatrical and art critic on the Revue de Paris, the Artiste, the Moniteur, and the Journal Officiel. Owing to his connection with the. Journal Officiel his fortunes became linked in parte family, and he was appointed librasome measure with those of the Bonarian to the Princess Mathilde. In 1872 ment on a literary mission to Italy, and he was sent by the republican governdied in the same year. Among the most ranked his Voyages en Espagne (1843), interesting of his productions may be his Italia (1852), Caprices et Zigzags (1845), and Constantinople (1854), narratives of his travels; his Roman de la Momie (1856), Le Capitaine Fracasse (1863), Belle Jenny (1865), Spirite (1866), novels, together with the brilliant short stories, Fortunio, Une Nuit de Cléopâtre, Jean et Jeanette, Le Roi Candaule, etc.; and his Histoire de l'Art Dramatique en France depuis Vingt-cing Ans (1849), Les Beaux Arts en Europe (1852), etc. Callss German mathematician, born Gauze (gaz), a thin transparent 1777. In 1801 he published his Disstuff of silk, linen, or cotton. quisitiones Arithmetica, treating of in- It is either plain or figured, the latter determinate analysis or transcendental being sometimes worked with flowers of arithmetic, and containing, in addition to silver or gold. many new theorems, a demonstration of Gavarni (gå-vår'nē), the assumed the theorem of Fermat concerning trianname of SULPICE PAUL gular numbers. He also calculated, by CHEVALIER, a French caricaturist, born a new method, the orbit of the planets at Paris in 1801. Originally a mechaniCeres and Pallas. In 1807 he became cal draughtsman, he began his artistic professor of mathematics and director of career in 1835 by designing costumes for the observatory at Göttingen, a position theaters and journals of fashion. He which he held till his death in 1855. He then established Les Gens du Monde; but was pronounced by Laplace to be the the journal was a failure, and the artist greatest mathematician in Europe. His spent some time in the debtor's prison chief works were the Theorio Motus Cor- of Clichy. On his release he was emporum Cælestium (1809), Intensitas Vis ployed upon the Charivari, the success of Magnetica Terrestris (1833), Dioptrische which was due in great part to his Untersuchungen (1841), and Unter- genius. His best known works are Les suchungen über Gegenstände der höheren Enfants Terribles, Les Rêves, Les FourbeGeodesie (1844). Gaut. See Ghâts. ries de Femmes, and Impressions de Ménages. In 1847 he visited England, and the sketches which he sent from St. |