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voyage at the mouth of the Nile. Hanno, with a fleet of sixty sail, coasted along the shores of Africa until he reached the mouth of the Gambia. The development of navigation was but slightly promoted by the Greeks ; and one of the most important contributions of the Romans to its advancement was, perhaps, the discovery of the nature of the monsoons or trade winds. After the fall of the Roman empire, navigation, sharing the fate of all the sciences, was neglected and nearly forgotten, until, with the revival of letters, it began to be prosecuted with renewed ardour. The commercial cities of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, were among the first to show the example. In the beginning of the fourteenth century, the introduction of the Mariner's Compass marked a new and decisive era in the progress of the science. Next came the discovery of the Canary Islands by the Spaniards; the more systematic expeditions of the Portuguese soon followed; and the fifteenth century closed with the memorable voyages of Columbus, the illustrious discoverer of America. So much have the achievements of that renowned navigator influenced the development of the science, that many of the most important nautical discoveries made since his time may justly be regarded as the offspring of his genius.

Present Condition.-In the rapid development of science that has taken place in the present century, navigation has eminently participated. By the application of steam, a considerable accession in the rate of sailing has been gained, and the important element of regularity has been introduced into the art. Wind and tide being now set at nought, and voyages that formerly occupied weeks being thus accomplished with ease and punctuality in a few days, navigation is consequently extending itself with rapidity in every direction.

Effects. It has been said by Burke, that if we were to consider certain subjects with reference to all their various ramifications, we would find them expanding into infinity. If there is wisdom in this remark, it

may be safely affirmed of navigation. With what topic is it not in some measure connected? To what circumstance in the affairs of society does it not bear some relation, close or remote? Navigation being one of the great agents in civilising the world, its effects must be everywhere visible. As it was by navigation that different countries, nay, even the two great continents of the earth, which had from time immemorial been unconscious of each other's existence, were first brought into communication, so is it by that art that their intercourse is perpetuated and increased. The discoveries in Astronomy and Geography to which it has contributed, and the explanation of such phenomena as the winds, tides, and great oceanic currents, may serve as illustrations of its influence upon science. We have only to look around us to see how much we are indebted to it for our luxuries, our comforts, and even our necessities. The difference between our present condition, with reference to these things, and that of the Britons before the Christian era, must be in a great measure attributed to the effects of navigation.

SKELETONS.

Art of Printing.

Necessity for diffusion of knowledge-Means for this end in ancient times-Their inefficiency-Our great means- -Printing-What is it-First attempts in the art-Their deficiency-The inventor of modern Printing-Peculiar merit of the process-First printed book -Story of Faustus-Apparent calamity that helped to spread the invention-Proofs of the estimation in which Printing was held by the learned-Its introduction into England-Into Scotland-Extent to which it is now applied-Application of steam to Printing-Effects of this invention on the condition of the world, as regards knowledge, and the moral and religious improvement of men

Agriculture.

The various sources of subsistence which God has put in man's power-Agriculture-What is meant by it-Its antiquity-Scripture proof-How it has been estimated by various nations-Illustration from history -Eastern Agriculture contrasted with Western-Its progress not so rapid as that of some other arts-Causes of this-War its special enemy-Its present advanced position-To what owing-Effects on the condition of man shown by considering his state without it-Its connection with civilisation-The benefits it confers on a country in a national point of view.

Newspapers.

One of the many advantages of printing-Newspapers as a branch of the periodical press-Date, country, and circumstances of their origin-Feeling that gave them birth-What contributed to their spread-Introduction into England-Their present` universality-Process of printing Newspapers-Illustrate by the "Times"-Their effects-Contributions to freedom, justice, humanity, the promotion of general intelligence-Influence on literary taste-Possible abuse of their influence-Advantages derived from reading Newspapers-Different position of the ancients. and moderns in this respect-Duty of a modern citizen with regard to them.

Telescope.

Feebleness of our senses compared with the extent of the universe around us-Value of any invention that extends their range―The Telescope-What it is— How it acts-Its different parts-Author of the invention-Defects of the first Telescopes-Causes-By what successive improvements removed-Authors of these improvements-The two most famous TelescopesThe one of last century-What it achieved-The other -Difficulties of its construction-Its achievementsUses of the Telescope for astronomical and nautical purposes-Illustrate both-General extension of our

knowledge of the system of the universe-Enlarged ideas of the Creator.

Architecture.

What is it-Its origin-Its early state-Diversity of national taste in Architecture-Influences that acted on its development-Various kinds of dwellings in primitive times-Mention of them in ScriptureCharacter of the nations by whom each was usedThe two elements in all Architecture-How both are necessary to its advancement-The nations of antiquity eminent for Architecture-The most celebrated orders of Architecture-Illustrate by the most splendid remains and imitations-Modern styles-Their characteristics and best examples-Necessity of Architecture to civilised society-How it has contributed to its physical and moral improvement-Illustrate by considering the condition of man without it.

Steam-Engine.

What is steam-Its properties-How made available for work-Any reference to it in ancient times— The first practical reference to it in modern times— The great improver of the Steam-engine-The peculiar merit of his invention-Rapid introduction of it-Its present universality-Principal parts of a Steam-engine -Applications of steam-(1.) The steam-boat-Its origin-First boats here and in America-Principal features in the construction of such a vessel-(2.) The railway-Its origin-First railway in this countryDifficulties in the way of their immediate adoption -Principal features in the construction of a railway— Advantages of these two applications of steamRapidity and regularity-Contrast old methods of travelling-(3.) The factory-Its peculiar advantages there-General effects of the invention of the Steamengine on civilisation-Tendency to maintain peace, direct and indirect-Influence on men's minds and habits-Progress of the world since the era of this invention.

SECTION II.

THEME WRITING—continued.

Write Themes according to the following Method.

Second Method.

I. DEFINITION: State the subject distinctly, and, if necessary, explain it by a formal definition, a paraphrase, or a description.

II. ORIGIN or CAUSE: Show what is the occasion of the subject or from what it proceeds.

III. ANTIQUITY or NOVELTY Show whether the subject was known in ancient times; in what state it was, if known; and in what state it is in modern times.

IV. UNIVERSALITY or LOCALITY: Show whether the subject relates to the whole world, or only to a particular portion of it.

V. EFFECTS: Examine whether the subject is good or bad; show wherein its excellence or inferiority consists; and point out the advantages or disadvantages which arise from it.

VI. CONTRAST: Contrast the state of society, as it is influenced by the subject, with its condition where the subject is either unknown or imperfectly developed.

VII. CONCLUSION: Conclude with such reflections or remarks as may seem applicable to the subject.

MODEL.-War.

Definition.-War is the term employed to designate the hostile operations carried on between different

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