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An important alteration was made in the calendar in 1751. Hitherto the ecclesiastical and legal year dated from March 25: it was now made to commence with the historical year on the 1st of January. The Old Style, or the Julian Calendar, was at the same time superseded by the Gregorian, or New Style, by throwing eleven days out of the current year. Great opposition was made to this wise change, and the masses long continued to grumble on account of the eleven days, of which they declared they had been robbed. The Gregorian Style was so called from Pope Gregory XIII., by whom it was introduced. The Old Style is still followed in Russia and wherever the Greek Church prevails.

In 1753 an alteration was made in the laws of marriage. Previous to this time neither the publication of banns nor obtaining a licence was considered necessary to the validity of a marriage, and any clergyman might perform the ceremony at any time or in any place. The consequence was that minors frequently contracted injudicious marriages, and that the rite of matrimony lost much of its proper solemnity. Disgraced clergymen in the Fleet Prison sold their services without asking any questions. A writer of the time says: "In walking along the street in my youth, on the side next to this prison, I have often been tempted by the question, "Sir, will you please to walk in and be married?' Along this most lawless space was hung a sign of a male and female hand conjoined, with Marriages performed within,' written underneath. A dirty fellow invited you in. The parson was seen walking before his shop; a squalid, profligate figure, clad in a battered plaid night-gown, with a fiery face, and ready to marry you for a dram of gin or a roll of tobacco." To remedy this evil a bill was now passed, enforcing the publication of banns or the purchase of a licence, and rendering the clergyman who solemnized a marriage without these indispensable conditions liable to seven years' transportation.

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8. On the death of Mr. Pelham in 1754, his brother, the Duke of Newcastle, succeded to the premiership. A war broke out soon after with France, which originated in the endeavours made by that country to encroach upon our American colonies. At this time France was in possession of Canada, the adjoining territories in the North and the country about the mouth of the Mississippi in the South. England possessed the colonies, with the exception of Florida, lying between

the French settlements; and claimed the whole territory within those limits on the north and south, and the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans on the east and west. This claim the French disputed by the erection of a line of forts along the Ohio and Mississippi, intended to connect their northern and southern possessions, and prevent the English from extending westwards. The war was at first conducted by the English colonists themselves; but they met with little success. General Braddock, under whom served George Washington, the future hero of America, was disastrously defeated by a combined force of French and Indians, and all his artillery, baggage, and ammunition fell into the hands of the enemy. Minorca was lost the same year, through the failure of Admiral Byng to relieve the garrison. Though neither guilty of treachery nor cowardice, the court-martial by which he was tried sentenced him to be shot, for not having done more than he did. Voltaire says he was executed to encourage the other admirals. The ministry now became unpopular, and in 1757 was remodelled. Newcastle still held the nominal premiership, but Pitt was really the head of the administration, and henceforth had the sole management of the war. Under his vigorous management the tide of fortune turned in favour of the English, and the French were driven out of North America. In 1759 an expedition was fitted out for the conquest of Canada, under the command of General Wolfe. By a bold and skilful manœuvre, he surprised and took Quebec, but unfortunately fell in the attack.

Though three times wounded, he continued his command until exhaustion brought him to the ground. Unable to fight any further, he was still conscious, and hearing a cry, "They run; they run!" exclaimed, "Who run?" "The enemy, was the reply. "What, the cowards fly already!" he rejoined; "then I die content."

General Amherst succeeded to the command of the army, and before twelve months completed the conquest of Canada.

In the mean time the Duke of Cumberland, with an

army of 50,000 men, had been beaten and driven from the Rhine by the French, and compelled to sign the disgraceful capitulation known as "The Convention of Closter Seven." This loss, however, was more than compensated for by the successes of Clive over the French in Hindostan, and by the brilliant victory of Minden (1760), in which the English, under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, defeated a French force vastly superior in strength.

9. In the midst of these successes, George II. suddenly died. He was a man of small capacity, possessed neither of dignity, learning, morals, nor wit; low and sensual in his habits, and vulgar in his tastes. He hated books, and compelled his queen, who was fond of reading, to indulge in it in secret.

George was fond of war, and was personally brave. He served with distinction at Oudenarde, and at Dettingen he displayed considerable military skill. In the latter engagement, says Thackeray, "his horse ran away with him, and with difficulty was stopped from carrying him into the enemy's lines. The king, dismounting from his fiery quadruped, said bravely, Now I know I shall not run away,' and placed himself at the head of the foot, drew his sword, brandishing it at the whole of the French army, and calling out to his men to come on, in bad English, but with the most famous pluck and spirit."

10. The morals of the nation during this reign were exceedingly lax, and appear to have declined in proportion as the nation itself prospered. Gambling and drunkenness were vices which pervaded all classes of society. The latter vice indeed reached such a height that it was found necessary to impose a heavy tax on gin, in order to diminish its consumption.

The retailers of this liquor set up painted boards outside their houses, inviting the public to get drunk for the small sum of one penny, and assuring customers that they might get dead drunk for twopence, and have straw for nothing. It was soon found, however, that the consumption of gin increased rather than diminished after the imposition of these heavy duties, and they' were repealed.

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Contemporaries.-11. France, Louis XIV.; Germany, Charles VI., Charles VII., Francis I., Maria Theresa; Prussia, Frederick I., Frederick II. (the Great); Pope, Swift, Gay, Young, Sterne, Richardson, Fielding, literary celebrities; Hogarth, painter and engraver.

GEORGE III.

Born A.D. 1738; reigned 60 years (1760-1820). Family.-1. George III. was the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, consequently a grandson of George II. He married Charlotte, Princess of Mecklenburg, and had fifteen children: George IV.; Frederick, Duke of York (d. 1827); William IV.; Edward, Duke of Kent (d. 1820); Ernest, Duke of Cumberland (d. 1852); Augustus, Duke of Sussex (d. 1843); Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge (d. 1850); and six daughters. (See Genealogical Table.)

The princess-dowager was a shrewd, domineering, narrowminded woman, but possessed of great influence over the young king, of whom she used to say (probably with great truth) that he was a dull, good boy, This influence being injudiciously used, made her very unpopular, and was violently assailed in the House of Lords by the Earl of Chatham, who described it as "more mighty than the throne itself," and betraying and clogging every administration. A great outcry was made on the subject, and "Impeach the king's mother' was scribbled over every wall at the Court end of London. As long as she lived, however, George remained under her tutelage and guidance. The queen was a sensible and virtuous woman, and did much towards reforming the morals of the Court.

Chronicle.-2. With the accession of George III. the sentiment of loyalty revived, and the Tories, who had been so devotedly attached to the Stuarts in spite of all their vices and blunders, now transferred their devotion to the House of Brunswick. The circum-,

stances under which George ascended the throne were indeed most auspicious. He was a young man of unblemished character; he was not regarded as a foreigner, as his immediate predecessors were; the cause of the exiled Stuarts was now perfectly hopeless; the kingdom was in a most prosperous condition.

On opening parliament his speech confirmed the favourable impression which had been already formed of him. "Born and educated," he said, "in this country, I glory in the name of Briton." Among the spectators at his coronation was Charles Edward Stuart, who had come over to England in disguise. George, it is said, knew that he was in London, but quietly ignored the fact, feeling confident in the affection of his subjects.

For a short time no change took place in the ministry, though it was known that George was favourable to the Tories. In 1761 Pitt discovered that Charles III. of Spain, an old enemy of England, had concluded a secret treaty, known as the Family Compact, with France, for the purpose of making war on England in With his usual prompt energy, he proposed at once to declare war against Spain, and intercept her American treasure-fleet. This wise counsel was rejected, chiefly through the opposition of the Earl of Bute, and Pitt thereupon resigned.

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The king behaved towards him with great generosity, created his wife a peeress in her own right, and bestowed a pension of 3000l. a year, for three lives, upon himself and his heirs. Bute was a narrow-minded statesman, and owed his elevation and influence in the cabinet solely to the princessdowager. His qualifications were well described by Frederick. Bute," said he, "you are the very man to be envoy at some small, proud German court, where there is nothing to do." He was hated most intensely by the people as a Tory, a favourite, and a Scotchman. He could scarcely make his appearance in the streets in safety without disguising himself. The infamous Wilkes compared him to Mortimer, the paramour of Isabella. Satirists and libellers assailed him on all sides, with and without reason.

3. The events which followed Pitt's retirement from office clearly demonstrated the sagacity of his counsel.

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