1. That the government consisted of the king, lords, and commons, and that the power of the king was limited; 2. That no tax can be imposed, and no law made, without consent of parliament; 3. That no man can be in any way punished without lawful trial. Parliament had greatly increased its power, and had become an effective check on royalty.

In the reign of Edward III. it was decided that the national assembly should meet regularly at Westminster. Previously Parliament had moved from town to town during the session, rarely staying in the same place more than a day.

Social Grades.-Serfdom gradually died out, and after the rebellion of Wat Tyler we hear no more of it in history. The labouring classes, which took the place of the villeins, appear to have been better paid and fed than they are at present, but in other respects they were worse off. The merchants of the kingdom had, at the close of the fifteenth century, become a most important class, and rivalled, in wealth and hospitality, the nobility. In many cases they were admitted into its ranks.

The De la Poles were descendants of a Hull merchant, whe had on one occasion lent 18,500l. to Edward III. Henry Picard, a London vintner, after the battle of Poictiers entertained at one time four kings:-Edward, his two prisoners John and David, and the king of Cyprus. The famous Whittington belongs to the same period. The nursery tale of his wonderful cat is founded upon the figure of a cat or panther, stretched at the feet of the effigy on his tomb.

The barons were greatly thinned during the Wars of the Roses, and at their close did not number more than from fifty to eighty.

It is said that of the twenty-five barons, who signed Magna Charta, there is not now a single direct representative in the House of Lords.

Architecture.-As the old Norman castles came to be less needed they were superseded by manor-houses, which approached much nearer in convenience to the modern mansion. The dwellings of the poor were

miserable clay-built huts, and were utterly destitute of comfort. Gothic architecture attained its highest state of perfection during this period.

Costumes. The foppery which characterized the reign of Richard II. was revived under Edward IV., and to such an extent that sumptuary laws had to be enacted. In the reign of Henry V., the head-dresses of the ladies were forked, and carried to a great height on each side of the head.

A law was passed in 1463 which forbade all persons under the rank of lord to wear peaks to their boots more than two inches long.

Manners. All classes rose at four in the morning, breakfasted at seven, dined at ten, and supped at four.

By a statute of Edward III., it was enacted that "no man, of what estate or condition soever he be, shall cause himself to be served, in his house or elsewhere, at dinner-meal, or supper, or at any other time, with more than two courses, and each mess of two sorts of victuals at the utmost."

The same interference took place in reference to dress. By a statute of Edward IV., no person beneath a lord could wear cloth of gold; no person beneath a knight could wear velvet or satin, and no yeoman could wear stuffing in his doublet.

Commerce. The chief exports at this time were wool, sheepskins, and leather. The chief imports were wines, silks, spices, and the precious metals.

Our wool was so highly valued on the continent, that the exportation of English sheep was prohibited. Our cloth manufactures were greatly improved by the Flemings, who had settled in various parts of the country during the reign of Edward III. It is said that there is still a great similarity between the dialect of the labouring population of Halifax, the descendants of some of these Flemings, and the artisans of Friesland. The iron trade of Sussex was, at this time, very considerable, and continued so for several centuries.

Fairs were held annually in the neighbourhood of most of the chief towns, and were attended by merchants from all parts of England and even from the continent.

The fair held near Winchester lasted sixteen days, and was on so extensive a scale that it looked like a vast canvas town. Each class of traders had a district to itself, which was called from the article of commerce sold in it.

Amusements.-The favourite sports of the nobility and clergy were hunting and falconry. The people amused themselves with athletic exercises and rude Scriptural plays.

The clergy were particularly addicted to field-sports. We read of one archdeacon taking with him on a visitation ninetyseven horses, twenty-one dogs, and three hawks.

Language. During this period the semi-Saxon, which had prevailed for about two hundred years after the Conquest, gradually lost many of its grammatical peculiarities, and assumed that form which has been called middle English. The following passages will illustrate the change :— 1100.-"He lægde laga thær widh; He laid laws therewith; that

that swa hwa swa whosoever

sloge heort odhdhe hinde that hine man sceold

or

slew hart hind that him man should blendian."-Saxon Chronicle.

blind.

1200.-He heng an his sweore ænne sceld deore ;

He hung on his neck

His nome was on Brutisc
Its name was in British

a shield dear [precious]

Pridwen ihaten.
Pridwen called.
Layamon.

1380.-Forsothe he seide also to his disciplis, Ther was sum riche man, that hadde a farmour, ether [or] a baily; and this was defamyd anentis [concerning] him, as he hadde wastid his goodis. (St. Luke xvi. 1.)— Wiclif's Bible.

1450.-"I hadde in custom to come to scole late,

Not for to lerne, but for a contenance (appearance' sake).-Lydgate.

Many words were introduced into our vocabulary by the Norman French; but the English language is still essentially Saxon.

HOUSE OF YORK.

EDWARD IV.

Born A.D. 1441; Reigned 22 years (1461-1483).

Family.-1. Edward was the eldest son of Richard duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of Sir Richard Woodville and widow of a Lancastrian, who had fallen in the second battle of St. Albans. Their children were Edward V., Richard duke of York, and Elizabeth, who married Henry VII.

Chronicle.-2. Immediately after the coronation the Lancastrians, who were still very powerful in the north, were defeated at Towton, in Yorkshire (Palm Sunday, 1461).

The fight took place in the midst of a heavy snow storm. It lasted six hours, and the number of Lancastrians, who perished in it, was greater than the total English losses during the whole of the French war.

The royal family then fled into Scotland. On receiving assistance from France, they again crossed the border, and resumed warfare, but were defeated at Hedgeley Moor and Hexham (1464). Henry, who for more than a year after the latter battle had lived in obscurity in the north, was in 1465 betrayed by a monk, and committed to the Tower.

Margaret escaped from Hexham with her son, and sought concealment in a forest. Here she fell into the hands of robbers, who plundered her of all her rings and jewels. During their quarrel over the booty, she contrived to escape, and plunged into the thickest of the forest. Overcome by hunger and fatigue, she at length sank to the ground powerless. While in this helpless condition she saw a robber approaching her, and, feeling that her only chance of escape was to rely upon his generosity, she struggled towards him with her son, and exclaimed, 'Here, my friend, I commit to your care the safety of the king's son." He was touched by this confidence, and enabled her to flee with her son to France.

E

3. Edward's marriage took place in 1464, and was followed by the rapid elevation of his wife's relatives. Her five sisters and two brothers were married to some of the noblest wards of the court, and her father was made Earl Rivers. The ascendency, which they attained in the council, excited the jealousy of the Nevilles (Warwick's family), and led to a coldness between that powerful house and the king.

This was increased by another circumstance. Warwick was sent to France to negociate a marriage between Edward's sister Margaret and a French prince. During his absence the king renewed a proposal, which had been before made, that she should marry Charles the son of the Duke of Burgundy; and when Warwick returned to England with the French ambassadors, Edward refused to receive them, and deprived the earl of the chancellorship.

4. In 1469 Warwick became still further estranged from the king, by the union of his daughter Isabella and the Duke of Clarence, without the royal permission. This marriage took place at Calais, of which town Warwick was governor. About the same time an insurrection broke out amongst his tenants in Yorkshire, in consequence of the undue influence of the Woodvilles in the king's council. Edward sent orders to Clarence and Warwick to come to his assistance; but before they arrived the royal forces were defeated at Edgecote; and Earl Rivers and Sir John Woodville, the father and brother of the queen, were taken and beheaded. The insurgents immediately dispersed at Warwick's command; but Edward found himself the prisoner of his liberators.

The power of Warwick at this time was immense. No less than 30,000 persons are said to have been fed daily in the numerous mansions, which he possessed throughout England. "When he came to London," says Stow, " he held such a house that six oxen were eaten at breakfast."

5. Warwick released the king after an imprisonment of three months, and a solemn reconciliation was then made between them. But the earl was insincere, and was at the same time fomenting an insurrection in