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BOOK III.

OF THE DIFFERENT PROGRESS OF OPULENCE IN DIFFERENT NATIONS.

CHAP. I.

OF THE NATURAL PROGRESS OF OPULENCE.

speculations that have been propagated concerning the balance of trade, it has never been pretended that either the country loses by its commerce with the town, or the town by that with the country which maintains it.

not only pay the expense of raising it and bringing it to market, but afford, too, the ordinary profits of agriculture to the farmer. The proprietors and cultivators of the counTHE great commerce of every civilized society try, therefore, which lies in the neighbourhood is that carried on between the inhabitants of of the town, over and above the ordinary prothe town and those of the country. It con- fits of agriculture, gain, in the price of what sists in the exchange of rude for manufactured they sell, the whole value of the carriage of produce, either immediately, or by the inter- the like produce that is brought from more vention of money, or of some sort of paper distant parts; and they save, besides, the whole which represents money. The country sup- value of this carriage in the price of what they plies the town with the means of subsistence buy. Compare the cultivation of the lands in and the materials of manufacture. The town the neighbourhood of any considerable town, repays this supply, by sending back a part of with that of those which lie at some distance the manufactured produce to the inhabitants from it, and you will easily satisfy yourself of the country. The town, in which there how much the country is benefited by the comneither is nor can be any reproduction of sub-merce of the town. Among all the absurd stances, may very properly be said to gain its whole wealth and subsistence from the country. We must not, however, upon this account, imagine that the gain of the town is the loss of the country. The gains of both are mutual and reciprocal, and the division of labour is in this, as in all other cases, advantageous to all the different persons employed in the various occupations into which it is sub-sarily be prior to that which ministers to the divided. The inhabitants of the country pur- latter. The cultivation and improvement of chase of the town a greater quantity of manu- the country, therefore, which affords subsistfactured goods with the produce of a much ence, must, necessarily, be prior to the insmaller quantity of their own labour, than crease of the town, which furnishes only the they must have employed had they attempted means of conveniency and luxury. It is the to prepare them themselves. The town affords surplus produce of the country only, or what a market for the surplus produce of the coun- is over and above the maintenance of the cultry, or what is over and above the maintenance tivators, that constitutes the subsistence of the of the cultivators; and it is there that the in-town, which can therefore increase only with habitants of the country exchange it for something else which is in demand among them. The greater the number and revenue of the inhabitants of the town, the more extensive is the market which it affords to those of the country; and the more extensive that market, it is always the more advantageous to a great number. The corn which grows within a mile of the town, sells there for the same price with that which comes from twenty miles distance. But the price of the latter must, generally,

As subsistence is, in the nature of things, prior to conveniency and luxury, so the industry which procures the former, must neces

the increase of the surplus produce. The town, indeed, may not always derive its whole subsistence from the country in its neighbourhood, or even from the territory to which it belongs, but from very distant countries; and this, though it forms no exception from the general rule, has occasioned considerable variations in the progress of opulence in different ages and nations.

That order of things which necessity imposes, in general, though not in every particu

lar country, is in every particular country pro- sell to the inhabitants of the country, necessamoted by the natural inclinations of man. If rily regulates the quantity of the materials and human institutions had never thwarted those provisions which they buy. Neither their em natural inclinations, the towns could nowhere ployment nor subsistence, therefore, can aughave increased beyond what the improvement ment, but in proportion to the augmentation and cultivation of the territory in which they of the demand from the country for finished were situated could support; till such time, work; and this demand can augment only in at least, as the whole of that territory was proportion to the extension of improvement completely cultivated and improved. Upon and cultivation. Had human institutions, equal, or nearly equal profits, most men will therefore, never disturbed the natural course choose to employ their capitals, rather in the of things, the progressive wealth and increase improvement and cultivation of land, than of the towns would, in every political society, either in manufactures or in foreign trade. be consequential, and in proportion to the imThe man who employs his capital in land, has provement and cultivation of the territory or it more under his view and command; and his country. fortune is much less liable to accidents than In our North American colonies, where that of the trader, who is obliged frequently uncultivated land is still to be had upon easy to commit it, not only to the winds and the terms, no manufactures for distant sale have waves, but to the more uncertain elements of ever yet been established in any of their towns. human folly and injustice, by giving great When an artificer has acquired a little more credits, in distant countries, to men with whose stock than is necessary for carrying on his own character and situation he can seldom be business in supplying the neighbouring counthoroughly acquainted. The capital of the try, he does not, in North America, attempt landlord, on the contrary, which is fixed in to establish with it a manufacture for more the improvement of his land, seems to be as distant sale, but employs it in the purchase well secured as the nature of human affairs and improvement of uncultivated land. From can admit of. The beauty of the country, be- artificer he becomes planter; and neither the sides, the pleasure of a country life, the tran-large wages nor the easy subsistence which quillity of mind which it promises, and, wher- that country affords to artificers, can bribe him ever the injustice of human laws does not dis- rather to work for other people than for himturb it, the independency which it really af- self. He feels that an artificer is the servant fords, have charms that, more or less, attract of his customers, from whom he derives his everybody; and as to cultivate the ground subsistence; but that a planter who cultivates was the original destination of man, so, in his own land, and derives his necessary subevery stage of his existence, he seems to re-sistence from the labour of his own family, is tain a predilection for this primitive employ- really a master, and independent of all the world.

ment.

In countries, on the contrary, where there is either no uncultivated land, or none that can be had upon easy terms, every artificer who has acquired more stock than he can employ in the occasional jobs of the neighbourhood, endeavours to prepare work for more

iron, the weaver some sort of linen or woollen manufactory. Those different manufactures come, in process of time, to be gradually subdivided, and thereby improved and refined in a great variety of ways, which may easily be conceived, and which it is therefore unneces sary to explain any farther.

Without the assistance of some artificers, Indeed, the cultivation of land cannot be carried on, but with great inconveniency and continual interruption. Smiths, carpenters, wheelwrights and ploughwrights, masons and bricklayers, tanners, shoemakers, and tailors, are people whose service the farmer has fre-distant sale. The smith erects some sort of quent occasion for. Such artificers, too, stand occasionally in need of the assistance of one another; and as their residence is not, like that of the farmer, necessarily tied down to a precise spot, they naturally settle in the neighbourhood of one another, and thus form a small town or village. The butcher, the brewer, and the baker, soon join them, to- In seeking for employment to a capital, magether with many other artificers and retail-nufactures are, upon equal or nearly equal ers, necessary or useful for supplying their oc- profits, naturally preferred to foreign comcasional wants, and who contribute still fur-merce, for the same reason that agriculture is ther to augment the town. The inhabitants naturally preferred to manufactures. As the of the town, and those of the country, are mu- capital of the landlord or farmer is more setually the servants of one another. The town cure than that of the manufacturer, so the cais a continual fair or market, to which the in-pital of the manufacturer, being at all times habitants of the country resort, in order to ex-more within his view and command, is more change their rude for manufactured produce. It is this commerce which supplies the inhabitants of the town, both with the materials of their work, and the means of their subsistence. The quantity of the finished work which they

secure than that of the foreign merchant. In every period, indeed, of every society, the surplus part both of the rude and manufactured produce, or that for which there is no demand at home, must be sent abroad, in order to be

revolution lasted for several centuries. The rapine and violence which the barbarians exercised against the ancient inhabitants, interrupted the commerce between the towns and the country. The towns were deserted, and

exchanged for something for which there is some demand at home. But whether the capital which carries this surplus produce abroad be a foreign or a domestic one, is of very little importance. If the society has not acquired sufficient capital, both to cultivate all its lands, the country was left uncultivated; and the and to manufacture in the completest manner western provinces of Europe, which had enthe whole of its rude produce, there is even a joyed a considerable degree of opulence under considerable advantage that the rude produce the Roman empire, sunk into the lowest state should be exported by a foreign capital, in of poverty and barbarism. During the contiorder that the whole stock of the society may nuance of those confusions, the chiefs and be employed in more useful purposes. The principal leaders of those nations acquired, or wealth of ancient Egypt, that of China and usurped to themselves, the greater part of the Indostan, sufficiently demonstrate that a na- lands of those countries. A great part of tion may attain a very high degree of opu- them was uncultivated; but no part of them, lence, though the greater part of its exporta- whether cultivated or uncultivated, was left tion trade be carried on by foreigners. The without a proprietor. All of them were enprogress of our North American and West grossed, and the greater part by a few great Indian colonies, would have been much less proprietors. rapid, had no capital but what belonged to themselves been employed in exporting their surplus produce.

This original engrossing of uncultivated lands, though a great, might have been but a transitory evil. They might soon have been According to the natural course of things, divided again, and broke into small parcels, therefore, the greater part of the capital of either by succession or by alienation. The every growing society is, first, directed to ag-law of primogeniture hindered them from being riculture, afterwards to manufactures, and, divided by succession; the introduction of enlast of all, to foreign commerce. This order tails prevented their being broke into small of things is so very natural, that in every so- parcels by alienation. ciety that had any territory, it has always, I When land, like moveables, is considered believe, been in some degree observed. Some as the means only of subsistence and enjoyof their lands must have been cultivated be-ment, the natural law of succession divides it, fore any considerable towns could be estab-like them, among all the children of the familished, and some sort of coarse industry of ly; of all of whom the subsistence and enjoythe manufacturing kind must have been car-ment may be supposed equally dear to the faried on in those towns, before they could well ther. This natural law of succession, accordthink of employing themselves in foreign com-ingly, took place among the Romans, who made no more distinction between elder and But though this natural order of things must younger, between male and female, in the inhave taken place in some degree in every such heritance of lands, than we do in the distribusociety, it has, in all the modern states of Eu- tion of moveables. But when land was conrope, been in many respects entirely inverted.sidered as the means, not of subsistence mereThe foreign commerce of some of their cities ly, but of power and protection, it was thought has introduced all their finer manufactures, or better that it should descend undivided to one. such as were fit for distant sale; and manu- In those disorderly times, every great landlord factures and foreign commerce together have was a sort of petty prince. His tenants were given birth to the principal improvements of his subjects. He was their judge, and in some agriculture. The manners and customs which respects their legislator in peace and their the nature of their original government intro- leader in war. He made war according to duced, and which remained after that govern- his own discretion, frequently against his ment was greatly altered, necessarily forced neighbours, and sometimes against his sovethem into this unnatural and retrograde order.

merce.

CHAP. II.

OF THE DISCOURAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN
THE ANCIENT STATE OF EUROPE, AFTER THE
FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

WHEN the German and Scythian nations overran the western provinces of the Roman empire, the confusions which followed so great

reign. The security of a landed estate, therefore, the protection which its owner could af ford to those who dwelt on it, depended upon its greatness. To divide it was to ruin it, and to expose every part of it to be oppressed and swallowed up by the incursions of its neighbours. The law of primogeniture, therefore, came to take place, not immediately indeed, but in process of time, in the succession of landed estates, for the same reason that it has generally taken place in that of monarchies, though not always at their first institution. That the power, and consequently the security of the monarchy, may not be weakened by division, it must descend entire to one of the

children. To which of them so important a birth is a necessary qualification for the enpreference shall be given, must be determined joyment either of civil or military honours. by some general rule, founded not upon the Entails are thought necessary for maintaining doubtful distinctions of personal merit, but this exclusive privilege of the nobility to the upon some plain and evident difference which great offices and honours of their country; can admit of no dispute. Among the children and that order having usurped one unjust adof the same family there can be no indisput- vantage over the rest of their fellow-citizens, able difference but that of sex, and that of lest their poverty should render it ridiculous, age. The male sex is universally preferred it is thought reasonable that they should have to the female; and when all other things are another. The common law of England, inequal, the elder everywhere takes place of the deed, is said to abhor perpetuities, and they younger. Hence the origin of the right of are accordingly more restricted there than in primogeniture, and of what is called lineal any other European monarchy; though even succession. England is not altogether without them. In Scotland, more than one fifth, perhaps more than one third part of the whole lands in the country, are at present supposed to be under strict entail.

Laws frequently continue in force long after the circumstances which first gave occasion to them, and which could alone render them reasonable, are no more. In the present state of Europe, the proprietor of a single acre Great tracts of uncultivated land were in of land is as perfectly secure in his possession this manner not only engrossed by particular as the proprietor of 100,000. The right of families, but the possibility of their being diprimogeniture, however, still continues to be vided again was as much as possible precludrespected; and as of all institutions it is the ed for ever. It seldom happens, however, fittest to support the pride of family distinc- that a great proprietor is a great improver. tions, it is still likely to endure for many cen- In the disorderly times which gave birth to turies. In every other respect, nothing can those barbarous institutions, the great proprie be more contrary to the real interest of a nu- tor was sufficiently employed in defending his merous family, than a right which, in order own territories, or in extending his jurisdic to enrich one, beggars all the rest of the chil-tion and authority over those of his neighdren. bours. He had no leisure to attend to the

When

Entails are the natural consequences of the cultivation and improvement of land. law of primogeniture. They were introduced the establishment of law and order afforded to preserve a certain lineal succession, of him this leisure, he often wanted the inclinawhich the law of primogeniture first gave the tion, and almost always the requisite abilities. idea, and to hinder any part of the original If the expense of his house and person either estate from being carried out of the proposed equalled or exceeded his revenue, as it did line, either by gift, or device, or alienation; very frequently, he had no stock to employ in either by the folly, or by the misfortune of this manner. If he was an economist, he geany of its successive owners. They were al-nerally found it more profitable to employ his together unknown to the Romans. Neither annual savings in new purchases than in the their substitutions, nor fidei commisses, bear improvement of his old estate. To improve any resemblance to entails, though some land with profit, like all other commercial proFrench lawyers have thought proper to dress jects, requires an exact attention to small savthe modern institution in the language and garb of those ancient ones.

When great landed estates were a sort of principalities, entails might not be unreasonable.

ings and small gains, of which a man born to a great fortune, even though naturally frugal, is very seldom capable. The situation of such a person naturally disposes him to attend rather to ornament, which pleases his fancy, than to profit, for which he has so little occasion. The elegance of his dress, of his equipage, of his house and household furniture, are objects which, from his infancy, he has been accustomed to have some anxiety about. The turn of mind which this habit naturally forms, follows him when he comes to think of the im

Like what are called the fundamental laws of some monarchies, they might frequent ly hinder the security of thousands from being endangered by the caprice or extravagance of one man. But in the present state of Europe, when small as well as great estates derive their security from the laws of their country, nothing can be more completely absurd. They are founded upon the most absurd of all sup-provement of land. He embellishes, perhaps, positions, the supposition that every successive four or five hundred acres in the neighbourgeneration of men have not an equal right to hood of his house, at ten times the expense the earth, and to all that it possesses; but that which the land is worth after all his improvethe property of the present generation should ments; and finds, that if he was to improve be restrained and regulated according to the his whole estate in the same manner, and he fancy of those who died, perhaps five hundred has little taste for any other, he would be a years ago. Entails, however, are still re-bankrupt before he had finished the tenth part spected, through the greater part of Europe; of it. There still remain, in both parts of the In those countries, particularly, in which noble united kingdom, some great estates which have

continued, without interruption, in the hands Speaking of the ideal republic described in the of the same family since the times of feudal laws of Plato, to maintain 5000 idle men (the anarchy. Compare the present condition of number of warriors supposed necessary for its those estates with the possessions of the small defence), together with their women and serproprietors in their neighbourhood, and you vants, would require, he says, a territory of will require no other argument to convince boundless extent and fertility, like the plains you how unfavourable such extensive property of Babylon. is to improvement.

The pride of man makes him love to doIf little improvement was to be expected mineer, and nothing mortifies him so much as from such great proprietors, still less was to to be obliged to condescend to persuade his be hoped for from those who occupied the land inferiors. Wherever the law allows it, and under them. In the ancient state of Europe, the nature of the work can afford it, therethe occupiers of land were all tenants at will. fore, he will generally prefer the service of They were all, or almost all, slaves, but their slaves to that of freemen. The planting of slavery was of a milder kind than that known sugar and tobacco can afford the expense of among the ancient Greeks and Romans, or slave cu tivation. The raising of corn, it even in our West Indian colonies. They were seems, in the present times, cannot. In the supposed to belong more directly to the land English colonies, of which the principal pro.` than to their master. They could, therefore, duce is corn, the far greater part of the worl be sold with it, but not separately. They could is done by freemen. The late resolution of marry, provided it was with the consent of the Quakers in Pennsylvania, to set at libert, their master; and he could not afterwards all their negro slaves, may satisfy us the dissolve the marriage by selling the man and their number cannot be very great. Had the: wife to different persons. If he maimed or made any considerable part of their property murdered any of them, he was liable to some such a resolution could never have been agree. penalty, though generally but to a small one. to. In our sugar colonies, on the contrary They were not, however, capable of acquiring the whole work is done by slaves, and in ou property. Whatever they acquired was ac- tobacco colonies a very great part of it. quired to their master, and he could take it profits of a sugar plantation in any of ou from them at pleasure. Whatever cultivation West Indian colonies, are generally much and improvement could be carried on by means greater than those of any other cultivation tha of such slaves, was properly carried on by their is known either in Europe or America; and master. It was at his expense. The seed, the the profits of a tobacco plantation, though incattle, and the instruments of husbandry, were ferior to those of sugar, are superior to those all his. It was for his benefit. Such slaves of corn, as has already been observed. Both could acquire nothing but their daily main- can afford the expense of slave cultivation tenance. It was properly the proprietor him- but sugar can afford it still better than tobac self, therefore, that in this case occupied his co. The number of negroes, accordingly, is own lands, and cultivated them by his own much greater, in proportion to that of whites, bondmen. This species of slavery still sub-in our sugar than in our tobacco colonies. sists in Russia, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, To the slave cultivators of ancient times, gra Moravia, and other parts of Germany. It is only in the western and south-western provinces of Europe that it has gradually been abolished altogether.

The

equally between the proprietor and the farmer, after setting aside what was judged necessary for keeping up the stock, which was restored to the proprietor, when the farmer either quitted or was turned out of the farm.

dually succeeded a species of farmers, knowr at present in France by the name of metayers. They are called in Latin Coloni Partiarii. They have been so long in disuse in England, But if great improvements are seldom to that at present I know no English name for be expected from great proprietors, they are them. The proprietor furnished them with least of all to be expected when they employ the seed, cattle, and instruments of husbandry, slaves for their workmen. The experience of the whole stock, in short, necessary for cultiail ages and nations, I believe, demonstrates vating the farm. The produce was divided that the work done by slaves, though it appears to cost only their maintenance, is in the end the dearest of any. A person who can acquire no property can have no other interest but to eat as much and to labour as little as possible. Whatever work he does beyond what is sufficient to purchase his own maintenance, can be squeezed out of him by violence only, and not by any interest of his own. In ancient Italy, how much the cultivation of corn degenerated, how unprofitable it became to the master, when it fell under the management of slaves, is remarked both by Pliny and Columella. In the time of Aristotle, it had not been much better in ancient Greece.

Land occupied by such tenants is properly cultivated at the expense of the proprietors, as much as that occupied by slaves. There is, however, one very essential difference between them. Such tenants, being freemen, are capable of acquiring property; and having a certain proportion of the produce of the land, they have a plain interest that the whole produce should be as great as possible, in order that their own proportion may be so. A slave,

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