species of this family exist in all the five parts of the world, where they are distributed in a manner not less unequal than the Raniform and Hyliform species, and, always, with a greater proportion for America, whilst the smallest portion of them belong to Europe, which has not even a single species peculiar to itself, for the two there found, the Common Toad and the Green Toad (Bufo viridis Laur.), also inhabit Africa and Asia, which produce moreover, the one Bufo pantherinus and Breviceps gibbosus, the other Plectropus pictus, Engystoma ornatum, Hyladactylus baleatus, Uperodon marmoratum, and Bufones cruentatus, scaber, biporcatus, isos, and asper. Oceania, which, after America, is, they observe, best furnished with Hyliform species, and where two of the Raniform family are found, has not hitherto yielded more than a single Bufoniform species, viz. Phryniscus Australis. America, besides six species of Bufo, viz. strumosus, melanotis, musicus, Americanus, margaritifer, d'Orbignyi, and Leschenaultii, furnishes Dendrobates tinctorius, obsurus, and pictus; Rhinoderma Darwinii; Atelopus flarescens; Phryniscus nigricans; Brachycephalus ephippium; and Engystomata ovale, Carolinense, rugosum, and microps. Mr. Darwin, speaking of the Fauna of the Galapagos Archipelago, says,Of snakes there are several species, but all harmless. Of toads and frogs there are none. I was surprised at this, considering how well the temperate and damp woods in the elevated parts appeared adapted to their habits. It recalled to my mind the singular statement made by Bory St. Vincent, namely, that none of this family are to be found on the volcanic islands in the great oceans. There certainly appears to be some foundation for this observation; which is the more remarkable, when compared with the case of lizards, which are generally among the earliest colonists of the smallest islet. It may be asked whether this is not owing to the different facilities of transport through salt-water, of the eggs of the latter, protected by a calcareous coat, and of the slimy spawn of the former." (Journal.) TOALDO, GIUSEPPE, a celebrated Italian geographer and meteorologist, was born in 1719 at a small village near Vicenza. After having received the usual rudiments of education, he was sent to the University of Padua, in order to qualify himself for the priesthood by the study of hterature and theology; and while there, a taste for natural philosophy, and particularly for astronomy, induced him to devote a considerable portion of his time to the The fith part is that termed by the French Océanie,' which includes the Indian Archipelago, the Society, Friendly, and other isles, Australia, and Van Diemen's Land. NB Bufo calamita, Laur., recorded as a third species by the Prince of Canino (Fauna Italica and Amphibia Europaa), is considered by MM. Dumeril and Bibron as identical with Bufo viridis. pursuit of those branches of science; this pursuit he continued, during the intervals which his pastoral duties afforded, after he had quitted the university and become the curate of a village in the neighbourhood. In 1762 he was appointed professor of physical geography and astronomy in the same university, and he immediately availed himself of the influence which his appointment gave him to obtain the grant of a building which might be occupied as an observatory; in this he succeeded, and being allowed the use of an antient tower, he placed in it all the instruments which he could collect. In this building he made a series of astronomical observations, in continuation of those which had been made about forty years previously by Poleni ; and the first thunder-rod erected in the Venetian states was one which Toaldo applied to the same building. He died suddenly at Padua, in December, 1798, in consequence of a fit of apoplexy, which was supposed to have been brought on by a domestic calamity. The Abbé Toaldo applied himself to the study of mathematics only as far as that branch of science is applicable to geography. In 1769 he published at Padua a treatise on plane and spherical trigonometry, with a collection of tables; and at Venice, in 1773, a tract entitled Compendio della Sfera e di Geographia.' In 1782 he published his 'Saggio di Studi Veneti nell' Astronomia e nella Marina;' and two years afterwards, his method of finding the longitude of a place by an observed transit of the moon; in 1789 appeared his Trattato di Gnomonica,' and in 1791 a work entitled 'Schediasmata Astronomica.' In 1776 he gave, in a letter to Mr. Strange, the British resident at Venice, an account of the tides in the Adriatic, which he drew from the observations of Signior Temanza, an Italian architect and engineer. From this account it appears that the tides in that sea are at their greatest height in winter; that the height of the spring-tides amounts to between 3 and 4 feet, while the neap-tides scarcely exceed 3 inches. (Phil. Trans., vol. lxvii.) The attention of Toaldo was strongly directed to meteorology at a time when this branch of natural philosophy was but little studied; and he is the first who took notice of the supposed connexion of atmospherical phenomena with the movement of the moon in her orbit. Having observed that those phenomena return in nearly the same order at the end of every eighteen years, he drew up tables exhibiting the state of the weather during three such periods; and an account of his system was given in a paper entitled 'Le Saros Météorologique,' &c., which is contained in the Journal de Rosier for 1782. · In 1770 Toaldo published a tract entitled Saggio Meteorologico sulla vera Influenza degli Astri;' and two years afterwards, a tract concerning the method of protecting buildings from the effects of lightning; he also published, in 1775, a work on the application of meteorology to agriculture. Toaldo wrote a life of the Abbé Conti, which was prefixed to an edition of the works of that philosopher and poet, who had been his instructor. TOBACCO, the common name of the plants belonging to the Monopetalous genus Nicotiana. Tobacco was the name used by the Caribbees for the pipe in which they smoked, but this word was transferred by the Spaniards to the herb itself. The genus Nicotiana contains about forty species, most of them yielding tobacco for smoking, and many of them cultivated in the gardens of Europe. The name Nicotiana was given these plants after Jean Nicot, of Nismes, in Languedoc, who was an agent of the king of France at Portugal, and there procured the seeds of the tobacco from a Dutchman who had procured them in Florida. Nicot sent them to France in 1560. The species of Nicotiana are most of them herbs, rarely undershrubs, and generally clothed with clammy hairs or down. The flowers are terminal, racemose or panicled, and of a white, green, or purplish colour. The calyx is 5-cleft, permanent; corolla funnel- or salver-shaped, divisions 5, plicate and spreading; stamens 5, as long as the tube of the corolla; anthers dehiscing lengthwise; stigma capitate; capsule 2-celled, 2-valved, valves bipartite; seeds minute, numerous. N. Tabacum, Common Virginian or Sweet-scented Tobacco, is an herbaceous plant, with acuminated, oblong, lanceolate, sessile leaves, lower ones decurrent; throat of corolla inflated, segments of the limb pointed. This plant is a native of the West Indies, where it first became known to the Spaniards, and of Virginia, where the English first became acquainted with its properties. Of the various species it is that which is most commonly cultivated in gardens as an ornament. It is also largely cultivated in Europe for the purpose of smoking. The other species are however in some cases preferred. Schrank has described a large number of varieties of the common tobacco, varying in the size and form of their leaves, as well as the colour and form of their corollas. For an account of the properties of this species, see NICOTIANA TABACUM. N. Macrophylla, Orinoco Tobacco, is an herbaceous plant, with ovate acute leaves clasping the stem; throat of corolla inflated, segments short, pointed. It is a larger plant than the last, the stem rising from five to seven feet high. It is a native of America, and is frequently used for smoking, under the name Orinoco tobacco; it is however inferior to the last; the milder Havannah cigars are said to be made from it. N. Rustica, English Tobacco, has an herbaceous square stem, with petiolate ovate, quite entire leaves, tube of corolla cylindrical, longer than the calyx; segments of the limbs roundish, obtuse. This plant is a native of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. It is called English tobacco because it was the first species that was introduced into this country for growth; it was then brought from America. It grows very well in this climate, and in some places is almost naturalised. It is known in France as tabac pausse, in Germany as Bauern-tabak, and in Spain as Tabacca cimarosa. This plant grows on the coast of the Mediterranean, and thence finds its way into India, where it is highly valued. The tobaccos of Salonica and Latakkia, which are much esteemed, appear to be the produce of N. rustica. From the extensive range of climate and difference of situation which this plant occupies, its characters suffer considerable change; hence a number of varieties have been described. In the shops this tobacco is known as Turkish. N. Persica, Shiraz Tobacco, is an herbaceous plant, clothed with clammy down, with the leaves of the root oblong, those of the stem acuminate and sessile; corolla salver-shaped, with a long tube, and rather unequal segments. This plant is a native of Persia, and furnishes the famous Shiraz tobacco. This tobacco is milder than that produced by the N. tabacum, and but a small quantity is consumed in this country. The English smoke more of the strongest tobacco than any nation in the world. There are several other species of tobacco which are used in the places where they naturally grow for smoking. N. quadrivalvis has capsules with four valves; it grows on the Missouri river, and is there smoked by the natives. N. multivalvis has capsules with many valves; it is cultivated by the Indians on the Columbia river for smoking. It is a fetid plant, and the calyx, the most fetid part, is selected by the Indians for smoking. N. nana, a small species of tobacco, is a native among the Rocky Mountains of North America, and is smoked by Indians. N. repanda is a native of Cuba, and is said to furnish the tobacco for making the small cigars known as Queen's, | garden mould, that tobacco may be cultivated without much fear of failure. There can be no doubt that, if it were not for the fiscal restrictions arising from duties imposed upon tobacco by almost every government, the cultivation of it would be a great resource to native industry, especially on a small scale, by cottagers and gardeners. In Holland, of which the climate differs little from that of Great Britain, tobacco is cultivated to a very great extent, even in very poor soils, by great attention to manuring, and by accelerating the growth of the plant. The seed is sown in a well-prepared seed-bed in March, and protected by mats laid over hoops as long as the nights are cold and frost is dreaded. The ground in which the tobacco is to be transplanted is laid in narrow beds with intervals between them, which are dug out deep, as is done with asparagus-beds, and richly manured with sheeps' dung. These beds are two feet wide at top, and two feet six inches at bottom, with sloping sides to keep the earth up; the intervals are only six or eight inches, and serve not only as drains to keep the beds dry, but as paths from which the surface of the beds may be stirred and weeded. Two rows of plants about eight inches high are planted at equal distances along the beds; the rows are sixteen or eighteen inches apart, and the plants at the same distance from each other. In warmer climates the plants are placed three feet apart, as there they grow to a much greater size, and cover more ground; a moist day is chosen for transplanting. The plants are taken up carefully with a small spade or trowel without shaking the earth much from the roots; they are placed slanting in a shallow basket, and thus carried to the prepared beds; they should be vigorous, and have a stem six or eight inches long. They are inserted into holes made by a proper instrument, so that the fibres of the roots and the adhering earth may be completely buried up to the bottom of the stem: four or six leaves should be on the plant; if more, the lowest may be pinched off. If the ground was sufficiently moist, and no great heat or strong sunshine wither the plants, they will scarcely appear to have suffered from the removal; those which die, as must often be the case, are replaced by others left in the seed-bed for that purpose. Great attention must be paid to the beds all the time the tobacco is growing; weeds must be carefully eradicated, and the earth repeatedly stirred between the plants with hoes and narrow spades to accelerate the growth. When the leaves acquire a certain size, the lower leaves should be pinched off, to increase the bulk of the upper: for the former are apt to wither before the latter have acquired their full growth. A fine tobacco plant should have from eight to twelve large succulent leaves, and a stem from three to six feet high; the top should then be pinched off to prevent its running and drawing the sap from the leaves. Every lateral shoot should be carefully pinched off as soon as it appears, to prevent branching. A few plants are left for seed, and of these the heads are allowed to shoot the full length. The seeds are so small and so numerous on a plant, that a few plants produce a sufficiency of seed for the next crop. The plantations of tobacco are continually examined, and every leaf injured by insects or otherwise is pulled off. Tobacco takes about four months from the time of plantber, when the leaves are gathered before there is any danger from frost: one single white frost would spoil the whole crop and cause it to rot. As soon as the colour of the leaves becomes of a paler green inclined to yellow, they are fit to be gathered; they then begin to droop, and emit a stronger odour, and they feel rough and somewhat brittle to the touch. When the dew is evaporated and the sun shines, the leaves may be most advantageously gathered, which is done by cutting down the plant close to the ground, or even a little under the surface. They are left on the ground to dry till the evening, taking care to turn them often, that they may dry equally and more rapidly. They are housed before the evening dew falls, which would injure them, and laid up under cover in heaps to sweat during the night; and some mats are thrown over the heaps to keep in the heat. If they are very full of juice, they are sometimes carried out again the next day to dry in the sun; but most commonly they are left to sweat for three or four days, and then moved and hung up to dry in sheds or buildings made for the purpose, like those in which paper is dried in the paper-mills, which allow a thorough draught of air, but keep out the rain. Cultivation. The cultivation of tobacco is most ex-ing to come to perfection; that is, from May to Septemtensively carried on in the United States of North America. It requires considerable heat to come to perfection; but with care and attention, and by treating it as an exotic, it may be very successfully cultivated in much colder climates. The least frost injures it; but this is the case with many plants, which are nevertheless successfully cultivated in the northern part of Europe. The seeds of the tobacco plant must be sown in a prepared seed-bed, and be carefully protected from the least frost: for which purpose straw and fern are used, as is done by the marketgardeners who raise early culinary vegetables. When once the danger of spring frosts is over, they may be safely transplanted; and if the ground has been duly prepared, they will arrive at maturity before the frosts of autumn, as is the case with potatoes, buckwheat, and many other plants which are natives of warmer climates. To accelerate the growth of the tobacco plant the ground should have been deeply trenched, and highly impregnated with manure for some time before; for fresh dung, especially that of horses, would impart a rank disagreeable flavour to the leaf. It is therefore by a preparatory course of high cultivation, and by bringing the soil to the state of a rich Every tobacco plantation has such buildings, proportioned | If it be found that, from defective packing, from the to the extent of the cultivation. The floors are most action of sea-water, or from any other cause, part of the commonly only the soil on which they stand; but it is much surface has become so injured as not to be worth preservbetter if they are boarded, because on the earth the plants ing, such part is removed, with large powerful cutting are apt to be soiled, which injures the quality of the instruments, by small quantities at a time. This requires tobacco. In some places the leaves are now stripped off considerable power, owing to the intense compression of the stems and strung on packthread to hang them up to the tobacco, especially upon the cylindrical sides of the dry. In others the whole plant is hung on pegs placed in mass, where the cutters act across the direction of the rows at regular distances, and fixed on laths which run stalks and leaves. The damaged tobacco thus removed is across the building. All that is required is to place as consumed in a furnace on the premises, which, with its many plants as possible without their being so near as to chimney, is jocularly termed the queen's tobacco-pipe." prevent the circulation of the air between them. When The remainder of the mass is accurately weighed, and then the plants are quite dry they are removed in moist or returned into the hogshead. foggy weather: for if the air is very dry the leaves would fall The manufacture of the tobacco-leaves into the numeto dust. They are laid in heaps on hurdles and covered over, rous varieties of tobacco for smoking in pipes-consisting of that they may sweat again, which they do but slowly. the leaf cut up into shreds or filaments, and usually divested The heaps are carefully examined from time to time to see of the stalk; into cigars, which are bundles of the tothat they do not heat too much; and, according to the sea-bacco-leaf rolled compactly together into a convenient son and the nature of the plants, whether more or less filled form for smoking; and into snuff, which consists partly of with sap, they remain so a week or a fortnight. This part of the stalks of the leaves, and partly of the leaves themselves, the process requires much attention and experience; for cut and ground into the state of powder-is usually conwhether they do not heat to the proper degree or too much, ducted by three distinct classes of individuals. The prein either case the quality is impaired. An experienced to- paration of tobacco, properly so called, claims the first bacco grower will ascertain the proper degree of heat better notice. with his hand, than the ablest chemist could do with his thermometer. If the leaves were not stripped off at first, which is not the most common practice, they are taken off now, when the proper fermentation is completed, and sorted; those which grow on the top of the stem, in the middle, and at the bottom, are laid separately, as being of different qualities. They are tied together in bundles of ten or twelve leaves, and again dried carefully, when they are ranged in casks horizontally, and pressed in, by means of a round board, by lever or screw, as soon as a certain quantity has been laid in; the pressure is equal to that of a weight of several tons. This is essential to the safe transportation of the tobacco, and it is thus that the great bulk of it arrives from the places where its cultivation is most extensive, as in America. The finest tobacco however is made into rolls, which from their shape are called carrots. The leaves are placed together by large handfuls, and wound very tightly round by strips of fibrous wood or strong grass, at a time when the air is somewhat moist; they partially consolidate, and require only to be rasped to make the finest and most genuine snuff, or rappée, as it is called. The snuffs commonly sold however are manufactured and prepared in a much more complicated manner. The refuse stems of the tobacco are sometimes burned; but it is best to let them rot in the ground, where they are converted into good manure for the next crop. From the high state of cultivation of the land, it is left very rich for any other crop after the tobacco; but as this is quite a garden cultivation, the tobacco recurs very soon on the same ground; the abundant manuring and deep trenching prevent any bad effects from this frequent recurrence. Manufacture.-Tobacco is packed in hogsheads for shipment: it is done with the greatest care, each bundle being laid separately. They are ranged side by side, and the direction of the points of the leaves is reversed with every alternate row. When the cask is about one-quarter filled, the tobacco is compressed by a powerful lever-press, which reduces the thickness of the layer from about twelve inches to three; and the pressure is continued several hours, that the tobacco may become so consolidated as not to spring up again when it is removed. In this way the cask is filled, by successive stages, until it contains a mass of tobacco-leaves so dense and compact, that a hogshead fortyeight inches in length, and thirty or thirty-two inches in diameter, will contain one thousand pounds. Upon the arrival of the tobacco in this country it is conveyed to bonding-warehouses. Those of the metropolis, which are of immense extent, are situated at the London Docks, where every cask is opened, to examine its contents, and to remove any tobacco which may have been injured in the passage. This arrangement is rendered necessary by the operation of the high import-duty, which renders it better for the owner to sacrifice a large quantity of tobacco which may have become impaired in value (though not rendered valueless) than to pay the duty upon it. For the purpose of examination, the head of the hogshead is knocked out, some of the staves are loosened, and the hogshead is taken completely off from the tobacco. P. C., No. 1554. The first operation performed upon a hogshead of tobacco, after it has been removed to the manufactory and opened, is the digging out of the solid tobacco with iron instruments. The pieces thus detached are then sprinkled with water, which facilitates the separation of the small bundles from each other, and also of the leaves composing each bundle. If the tobacco be of the kind called handwork,' that is to say, with the stalks remaining attached to the leaves, it must now be stripped, unless indeed it be required for the production of a kind of tobacco called bird's-eye,' which contains a portion of stalk as well as leaf. The removal of the stalks is usually effected in England by women or boys, who fold the leaf along the middle, and, by means of a small instrument, applied with a dexterity acquired only by practice, separate the stalks from the leaves, and lay them aside in different heaps. To prepare them for being cut into shreds or filaments, the leaves are pressed together in large numbers in the form of a cake, during which operation they are occasionally moistened, not only to enable them to cake together the more readily, but also in order to improve the subsequent flavour of the tobacco. The details of the machinery employed for compressing and cutting the tobacco vary in different establishments. In that which is described in A Day at a Tobacco-Manufactory,' in the Penny Magazine,' the damp leaves are taken up out of a trough and laid in what is called a mortar-press,' several layers being piled upon each other. The whole is then subjected to pressure by means of an iron plate which descends into the press, and is forced down by a screw. The tobacco is next removed from the mortar-press' to the standing-press,' where it is compressed into one-third of its original thickness. The leaves remain several hours in this press, in order to destroy their elasticity. When removed from the press to the cutting-engine, the cake of leaves is as hard as a board; yet it retains a slight degree of clamminess or moisture from the previous sprinkling. As manufacturing machinery generally has undergone, of late years, great changes and improvements, so it has been with the cutting-machinery of the tobacco-manufacturer. Originally it consisted simply of a long knife worked by hand. Hand-engines were then introduced, and such are still partially used, in which the knife is moved by a train of machinery, which also shifts the cake of tobacco between each cut, so as to make it ready for the next. This kind of cutting-engine is turned by a winch-handle, and the motion is regulated by a fly-wheel. Horses have been applied to a similar machine; and, lastly, steam-power has been brought to the aid of the manufacturer, leaving the attendance of men necessary only to place the cake in the engine, to attend to it while at work, and to remove the cut tobacco. Generally speaking, all of these machines act upon the same principle. The cake of leaves is laid upon an iron bed, which is susceptible of a slow progressive motion by means of a screw which passes beneath it, and is connected with a cog-wheel in such a manner that, while the machine is moving, the bed is constantly urged forward. Another part of the mechanism gives motion to the knife, which has a sharp VOL. XXV.-D blade, rather longer than the width of the cake, and is pivoted on a hinge or fulcrum at one end, the other rising and falling with the action of the machinery. The depth of the cake is about two inches, and the thickness of the film taken off by each stroke, and consequently the fineness or coarseness of the filaments of tobacco, is regulated by alterations in a train of cog-wheels. Other machines have been devised in which knives attached to the arms of a revolving wheel are to cut the tobacco in a similar manner to the action of a chaff-mill; but the writer is not aware that such have been brought into use. Many circumstances combine to account for the different qualities and appearance of the numerous varieties of tobacco used for smoking. Tobaccos raised in various places naturally present some points of difference; variations will, as already shown, appear in different parts of the same crop; and the retention or rejection of the stalk, the nature and extent of the moistening, and the degree of fineness of the fibres, occasion still further differences. These varieties it is needless to notice further, unless the coarse variety called shag,' which is used both for chewing and smoking, be deemed a sufficient exception. It is formed of the darkest-coloured leaves, well liquored, which darkens them still more. One other kind of tobacco claims notice: it is that known as pig-tail tobacco,' and consists of a rope or cord, about as large as the thicker end of a tobacco-pipe, and as long as the manufacturer can conveniently make it. It is produced by a process similar to spinning, and requires the simultaneous aid of a man and two boys. A bench several yards in length is made use of, with a spinningwheel at one end, turned by one of the boys. The other boy arranges a number of damp leaves, with the stalks removed, end to end upon the bench, taking care to lay them smooth and open; and the man immediately follows him, and rolls up the leaves into the form of a cord by a peculiar motion of his hand. As fast as this is done, the finished tail is wound upon the spinning-wheel. It is transferred from the spinning-wheel, by the action of the machinery, to a frame connected with it; and subsequently it is wound or twisted up into a hard close ball, and darkened by steeping in tobacco-water. The manufacture of cigars is exceedingly simple. One man or boy, with a quantity of unstripped leaves before him, takes them one by one, strips them as before described, and then passes them to the cigar-maker, who is seated on a low stool in front of a low work-bench, which has raised ledges on every side excepting that nearest to him. He takes a leaf of tobacco, spreads it smoothly before him on the bench, and cuts it to a form resembling one of the gores or stripes of a balloon. He then lays a few fragments of tobacco-leaf in its centre, and rolls the whole up into a form nearly resembling that of a cigar. The next operation is to place the partially formed cigar in an iron gauge, which cuts it to a given length. The maker then lays a narrow strip of leaf upon the bench, and rolls the cigar spirally in it. All this is done with great rapidity, a few seconds being sufficient for the production of a cigar. The cigars are finally dried for sale. arms or levers. Little is done at the snuff-mills beyond a preparatory drying of the tobacco and the actual grinding; but the snuff usually receives some finishing operations from the maker after it leaves the mill. (Porter's Tropical Agriculturist; Penny Magazine, No. 620.) Trade.-The discoverers of the New World learned the habit of smoking tobacco from the natives, and on their return the practice was at first introduced into Spain and Portugal, and soon spread to other parts of the Continent. The settlers who accompanied Raleigh on his expedition to colonize Virginia, which returned unsuccessful in 1586, introduced the habit into England. Before the establishment of the colony of Virginia in 1606, all the tobacco imported into this country was raised by the Spaniards in the West India Islands. King James's invectives against the use of this weed are now curious matters of history. In 1604 he took upon himself, without the consent of parliament, to raise the duty on tobacco from 2d. to 6s. 10d. the lb. In the commission addressed on this occasion to the lord treasurer, he remarks that 'tobacco being a drug of late years found out and brought from foreign parts in small quantities, was taken and used by the better sort, both then and now, only as physic to preserve health;' but he goes on to say that persons of mean condition now consumed their wages and time in smoking tobacco, to their great injury and to the general corruption. In his Counterblast to Tobacco' he inveighed still more strongly against this precious stink.' In 1615 the colonists of Virginia regularly betook themselves to the cultivation of the tobacco-plant, abandoning the manufacture of ashes, soap, glass, tar, and the planting of vineyards, which they had already commenced." (Bancroft's Hist. of United States, i., p. 168.) James felt that in the infancy of the colony this proceeding of the planters must be tolerated, and without abating his well-known aversion to tobacco, he held, according to a proclamation, that it was of the two more tolerable that the same should be imported, amongst many other varieties and superfluities which come from beyond seas, than to be permitted to be planted here within this realm, thereby to abuse and misemploy the soil of this fruitful kingdom. In the first instance he commanded that the production of tobacco should not exceed the rate of a cwt. for each individual planter. The cultivation was forbidden in England, and the plants already growing were ordered to be uprooted. At the same time he confined the right of importing the commodity to such persons as he should license for the purpose. In the last year of his reign the exclusive supply of the English market was given to the English plantations in America. The tobacco duty now yields a gross revenue of about 3,500,000l. a year; only two articles of foreign production, sugar and tea, bring in a larger sum. Since 1825 the duty has been 3s. per lb., and 2s. 9d. if the produce of the British possessions in America. The value of the article in bond varies from 24d. to 6d. per lb. ; and the duty is therefore from 600 to 1440 per cent. the average rate is said to be 900 per cent. From 1815 to 1825 the duty was 4s. the lb. În 1786 the duty in Great Britain was only 10d. per lb.; but in the following year it was increased to 1s. 3d.; in 1796 to 1s. 7d.; and it was successively increased at different times until it amounted to 4s. in 1815. From 1794 to 1798, when the duty was 8d. the lb., the consumption of tobacco in Ireland averaged 8,000,000 lbs. yearly; but from 1825 to 1829, with a duty of 3s., the consumption was only 4,000,000 lbs. Had it kept pace with the population, it would have been 16,000,000 lbs. The conclusion is that a large quantity of the tobacco consumed in Ireland was smuggled. The late Lord Sydenham, when president of the Board of Trade, stated that in one year seventy cargoes of tobacco had been smuggled between Waterford and the Giant's Causeway; and that the quantity thus introduced was not less than 3,500,000 lbs. The consumption in Great Britain was as follows in each of the undermentioned years : Snuff, which requires a higher degree of care in its manufacture than any other product of the tobacco-plant, is made either from stalks only, from leaves only, or from a mixture of the two. That known as Scotch snuff is made either wholly of stalks, or with a very small admixture of leaves; high-dried snuffs owe their peculiar qualities chiefly to a degree of drying which imparts a Scorched flavour to them; and innumerable varieties are produced by the choice, mixture, and preparation of different tobaccos. Most of the snuff made near London is ground in mills whose machinery is impelled by the river Wandle, in and near to the small town of Mitcham in Surrey. In these mills two kinds of grinding-machine are employed, one consisting of two cylindrical stones, several feet in diameter, and one or more in thickness, set up on edge, side by side, upon a circular slab or bed. These stones have a two-fold motion imparted to them, resembling that of a carriage-wheel compelled to revolve in a small circle. The effect of this peculiar motion is a grinding action upon the bed where the snuff is laid, peculiarly adapted fo the required purpose. Some kinds of snuff however are better ground by the other sort of machine, which consists of a kind of rolling pestle, set in motion by an ingenious train of wheels and set of jointed | period is added:— 1786 1791 1796 6,846,606 lbs. 9,340,875 10,047,843 For the following years the population of each decennial Duty per lb. 48. 38. მა It thus appears that the consumption is now considerably less than one lb. per head: in Prussia it is three lbs. The allowance to British seamen for stores is two lbs. per month; and in 1798 the annual consumption in Ireland averaged two lbs. a head. It is impossible to believe that the use of tobacco has declined, or even been stationary, within the last few years: there is little doubt indeed of its having increased, though the returns give a different result. In 1828 only 8600 lbs. of cigars paid duty at 188. the lb.; in 1831, the duty having been reduced one-half, 66,000 lbs. were entered for consumption; and in 1841 there were entered 213,613 lbs. The following table shows the quantities of unmanufactured tobacco on which duty has been paid in the United Kingdom in the three years and a half ending July, 1842: must be supposed to have had their effect in producing the above result, which has naturally alarmed the government; and an act has been passed (5 & 6 Victoria, c. 93) intended to remedy one of the sources of loss to the revenue, by again subjecting the manufacturers and dealers to the supervision of the excise. Up to 1825 both a customs and excise duty was collected on tobacco; but since that year the duty has been wholly collected by the officers of the customs at the ports of importation. A strict survey of the manufacturers' premises, and a registry of their operations and the sales of the retail dealers, were still kept up by the excise, though they no longer collected any duty. This survey was at length abolished in 1840, by the 3 & 4 Vict., c. 18: it is now partially re-established. The nature of the adulterations practised may be gathered from one of the clauses of the Act 5 & 6 Vict., which prohibits, under a penalty of 2007., manufacturers having in their possession any sugar, treacle, molasses, or honey, or any commings or roots of malt, or any ground or unground roasted grain, ground or unground chicory, lime, sand (not being tobacco sand), umbre, ochre, or other earths, sea-weed, ground or powdered, wood, moss, or weeds, or any leaves, or any herbs or plants (not being tobacco leaves or plants) respectively, nor any substance or material, syrup, liquid, or 7,189,166 preparation, matter or thing, to be used or capable of 975,022 being used as a substitute for or to increase the weight of 2,663,522 tobacco or snuff. The price of tobacco has risen in consequence of the Act being strictly enforced. In the last year of the excise survey (1839) the quantities of the different kinds of tobacco and snuff sent out by permit from the manufacturers of the United Kingdom were as under :- Half-year ending 5th July, 1842. lbs. 14,590,129 Scotland 2,082,469 2,071,350 2,031,982 Ireland 5,202,692 5,355,617 5,473,477 United 22,971,406 22,902,398 22,095,588 10,827,710 Kingdom Smuggling and extensive adulteration of the article We give another table further illustrating the commercial intercourse created by the demand for tobacco: it shows the countries from which tobacco was imported in 1839: Unmanu- Manu- United States of America. Cuba British West Indies East India Company's Territories Turkey, Syria, and Egypt Holland 477,969 factured and Cigars. lbs. 931,861 lbs. Snuff. Total. £2,500 375 3:5 22,514 132,287 345,670 12 389,381 214,410 3 603.794 168 110 Tobacco, as already stated, is not allowed to be grown in England. The acts prohibiting its cultivation did not until lately apply to Ireland. In Prussia 24,748 acres were planted with tobacco in 1835: in France, in 1840, the produce of home-grown tobacco was 175,015 cwt., on 19,662 acres: the duty on tobacco in France yields about 3,800,000l. per annum. Tobacco is extensively cultivated in Holland and Belgium, also in the southern provinces of Russia, and in Turkey and Syria. It has as yet made little progress in the British West Indies, and still less in Upper Canada, though encouraged by a small differential duty of 3d. in the lb. It is said that East India tobacco would be much more extensively introduced if a similar preference were shown to it. The tobacco of 17 35,605,253 1,610,649 11,677 37,227,579 Cuba holds the highest rank for the excellence of its flavour. In 1833 the export of cigars was 3,320,207 Tobacco is not allowed to be imported in vessels of less lbs., and of leaf tobacco 2,346,545 lbs. Next in favour, than 120 tons, nor exported in those under 70 tons. The perhaps, are the cigars of Manilla. But the cultivation of places of import are limited to a few of the principal ports tobacco is most extensive in the United States. In 1836 where it can be safely secured under the king's lock. A the value of the exports was 10,000,000 dollars, being one-charge of 2s. per hhd. is made on its being placed in the seventh of the value of the cotton exported; in 1838 the value of tobacco exported was 7,392,029 dollars; in 1839, 9.882,943 dollars; and in 1841 it was 12,576,703 dollars. The following table gives a general view of the trade of England in tobacco : warehouse, and the same sum when it is taken out; but no other payment as rent is due for five years. Of 37,000,000 lbs. imported in one year, 20,000,000 arrived in the port of London, and 14,750,000 lbs. at Liverpool. The tobacco exported is principally to Germany, Holland, Belgium, Spain, Italy, the West of Africa, and Portugal, and to other parts in smaller quantities. TOBACCO-PIPE, a long slender tube, of very small bore, used for inhaling the fumes of a small quantity of burning tobacco deposited in a bowl or cavity attached to one end of the tube. The materials of which tobacco-pipes are formed are very numerous. White and coloured earths, porcelain, metals, ivory, horn, shell, costly woods, agate, cornelian, talc, and amber, are among the substances which have been used for the purpose. The forms of tobacco-pipes admit of at least equal variety, but perhaps the most re |