This splendid edition contains the notes of the antient | commentators, and the observations of Torelli himself on the tract De Conoidibus et Spheroidibus;' and to these are added the various readings which occur in the manuscript copies of Archimedes in Paris and Florence, together with a commentary by the Oxford editor on the tract relating to floating bodies. TORENIA, a small genus of plants of the natural family of Scrophularineæ, found in India, the tropical parts of New Holland, and in South America. T. asiatica, a species found in almost every part of India, is described by Rheede as having the juice of its leaves employed as a cure for gonorrhoea on the coast of Malabar. are:-'Historia Rerum Orcadensium, libri iii.,' fol., Hafniae, 1715; Series Dynastarum et Regum Daniae à Skialdo ad Gormum Grandovem,' 4to., Hafniae, 1712; Historia Rerum Norvegicarum ad Annum 1387,' 4 vols. fol., Hafniae, 1711. A very accurate account of his later works, together with a collection of private letters, which show at least that he wrote elegant Latin, is to be found in a work published by the celebrated Danish historian Peter Suhm, under the title In Effigiem Thormodi Torfaei, una cum Torfaeanis,' &c., 4to., Hafniae, 1777; Peter Suhm's Smaae Skrifter og Afhandlinger,' Kiöbenhavn, 1788; Eber's Bibliographisches Lexicon,' Leipzig, 1819; Allgemeines Histori sches Lexicon,' Leipzig, 1747. · · It was at Torgau that Luther and his friends signed, in 1530, the Torgau Articles, which were the basis of the Augsburg Confession; and here too the Torgau book, which was directed against Crypto-Calvinism, was signed by above 8000 clergymen. TOREUTIC. [PHIDIAS; SCULPTURE.] TORGAU is a strongly fortified town in the governTORFAEUS, or TORMO'DUS, his assumed literary ment of Merseburg, in the Prussian province of Saxony. names after having been introduced to the learned world It is situated in a low country, containing numerous meres as a Latin author. His real Icelandic name is Thormod and ponds, on the left bank of the Elbe, over which there Thorveson. Little or nothing is known about his early is a bridge 860 feet long and 20 feet wide, half of stone and life. He was born at Engoe, a small island on the southern uncovered, and half of wood and covered. There are in Torcoast of Iceland, of poor parents, who however were in gau four churches, in one of which is the tomb of Catherine sufficiently good circumstances to give him an outfit (for Bora, the wife of Luther, and valuable paintings by Lucas the institution, like all public schools in Iceland, was a Cranach; a gymnasium, and several schools; a district trifree-school) for the Latin school at Skalholdt, where, ac- bunal which has ten towns in its jurisdiction, and various cording to Iceland custom, he became a good classical public offices. The inhabitants, 7000 in number, besides the scholar; so much so, that upon his arrival in Copenhagen, garrison of between 2000 and 3000 men, had formerly extenhis choice and fluent Latin surprised the professors there. sive manufactories of woollens, and breweries; at present In the year 1654 he was entered as a free student at the they have still some manufactures of woollen cloths, stockuniversity of Copenhagen, where he remained till the yearings, linen, leather, and soap, and derive a principal part of 1657. In the year 1659 he was captured and made pri- their subsistence from shipbuilding, dyeing, and a consoner by a Swedish privateer on his return from Christian- siderable trade in corn, timber, and lime. The fortificasand in Norway. This circumstance appears to have tions are now very strong, including the fort of Hartenfels given him some notoriety, for immediately after his re-standing on a rock, which was formerly detached, and lease and return to Copenhagen, king Frederick III. ap- used as a house of correction: in 1809 it was resolved pointed him interpreter of Icelandic manuscripts, and a to convert the town into a fortress, on which occasion 300 short time afterwards sent him to Iceland for the purpose houses were pulled down. In the year 1760 a decisive of collecting manuscripts, which, with the assistance of victory was obtained by Frederick II. of Prussia over the his warm friend and patron, Brynhjulf Swendson, bishop Austrians in the vicinity of Torgau. In November and of Skalholdt, he accomplished so well, that the collection December, 1813, it was besieged by the Prussians, capituwhich he brought back, and which is still preserved in the lated on the 26th of December, and was given up by the Royal Library in Copenhagen, is considered the best in French garrison on the 10th of January, 1814. the world for antient Scandinavian history and literature. The king gave him, shortly after his return, as a reward for his zeal, and to enable him to pursue his studies, a small appointment at Stawanger in Norway. This office however he resigned in the year 1667, upon being appointed keeper of the king's collection of antiquities. He made soon afterwards another voyage to Iceland, for the purpose of taking possession of some little property, to which he had succeeded after the death of his father and of his elder brother; and after his return the same year, he went to Amsterdam for some literary purpose. During his voyage back he was shipwrecked at Skagen; and on his journey by land to Copenhagen, he was insulted and attacked in a small town in Sealand by one of his countrymen, whom, in defending himself, he accidentally killed. This circumstance caused great excitement. He surrendered himself immediately, was tried, and sentenced to death. However, by an appeal to a superior court, and an appellatio ad tronum,' or appeal to the throne, as it is termed in Danish jurisprudence, his sentence was commuted into a fine, which he paid, and was released; but as it was impossible for the king to retain a man in his service with a blemish on his reputation, he was dismissed, and lost his salary. He then retired to a small farm in Norway, the property of his wife, where he lived without any official employment till the year 1682, when Christian V., having succeeded to the Danish throne, recalled him, and appointed him royal historiographer, and an assessor in the consistory, or board of education, with a salary sufficient to enable him to live independently and to pursue his studies. This appointment he kept till his death. He commenced his most important work, the History of Norway,' and finished it as far as the Union of Calmar, when, unfortunately, ill health compelled him to surrender his favourite task to his friend Professor Reitzer. He was married twice: his first wife died in the year 1695: he married again in 1709; and in the year 1719 he died, very far advanced in years, without issue. His works, printed, as well as in MS., are very numerous, and exhibit deep knowledge and indefatigable research into antient Scandinavian history. The MSS. he left are preserved at the Royal Library in Copenhagen: as to his published works, it will be sufficient to mention the most important, which (Müller, Lexicon; Stein, Lexicon; Hassel; Cannabich.) TORINO, the Intendenza or Province of, is bounded on the north by the province of Ivrea, west by the provinces of Susa and Pinerol, south by the provinces of Saluzzo and Alba, and east by those of Asti and Vercelli. The province of Turin forms part of Piedmont proper. It extends on both banks of the Po, and along the watercourses of the Dora Ripuaria, the Sangone, the lesser Stura, the Orco, and other streams which come from the Alps and flow into the Po. The valley of Lanzo, north-west of Turin, which is drained by the lesser Stura, and reaches to the foot of the lofty Mount Iseran, which divides it from Savoy, is one of the finest and most picturesque districts in Piedmont. It supplies Turin with cattle and the produce of the dairy. It has also mines of iron and other minerals. The province of Turin contains 136 communes, 169 parishes, and 343,000 inhabitants. (Serristori, Statistica.) The principal towns, besides the capital, are:-1. Rivoli, west of Turin, on the high road to Susa, has 5300 inhabitants; manufactories of linen and woollens, and a king's palace. The country around is interspersed with countryhouses. 2. Chieri (pronounced Ker in Piedmontese, Quiers in French), a well-built town of 12,000 inhabitants, situated on the hills of Monferrato, six miles east of Turin, has several churches and convents with good paintings, and some noblemen's palaces, and a very fruitful territory. It is one of the chief markets for silk in Piedmont. Chieri was a republic of some importance in the middle ages, which long maintained its independence, whilst Turin, Susa, and other towns of Piedmont acknowledged their feudal counts or lords. The French historical families of Broglie and Crillon are originally from Chieri, as well as the families of Belgiojoso and Balbi, which have remained in Italy. (Denina, Quadro Istorico dell' Alta Italia.) 3. Moncalieri, on the right bank of the Po, south of Turin, on the high road to Alessandria and Genoa, has a royal palace, and 7300 inhabitants. 4. Carignano, a town of 7000 inhabitants, in a fertile plain on the left bank of the Po, 11 miles south of Turin, on the high road to Nice. 5. Carmagnola, on the right bank of the Po, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is a great market for silk. 6. Chivasso, a town of 7000 inhabitants, on the left bank of the Po, near the confluence of the river Orco, 12 miles north-east of Turin, on the high road to Milan, in a plain abounding with corn and cattle. 7. Rivarolo. in the valley of the Orco, has 5000 inhabitants. 8. Poirino, on the road to Alessandria, has 5600 inhabitants. There are besides these, many towns of between 2000 and 3000 inhabitants in the neighbourhood of Turin, such as Pianezza, Caselle, Lanzo, Montanaro, Gassino, Viù, Vinovo, and others. The province of Turin is altogether one of the most fertile and thickly inhabited districts in Italy. (Calendario Sardo; Denina; Neigebaur.) TORINO, TURI'N in French, the capital of Piedmont, and the residence of the king of the Sardinian States, is situated in 45° 5' N. lat. and 7° 44′ E. long., on the left or western bank of the Po, which here runs in a northern direction, and at the confluence of the Dora Ripuaria, which flows from the valley of Susa. It lies in a wide and fertile valley, between the lower offsets of the Cottian Alps on the west, and the hills of Monferrato, which rise immediately above the right or eastern bank of the Po. The valley opens to the north-east into the wide plain of Lombardy. Turin is one of the most regularly-built towns in Europe; most of the streets being in straight lines and intersecting each other at right angles, and the squares being also of a regular form. The streets are kept cleaner than in most other Italian cities, being washed during the night by water drawn from the Dora. The buildings, though massive and lofty, are, generally speaking, plain, chiefly built of brick, and their appearance is uniform and monotonous. The town is about one mile and a quarter in length and little more than half a mile in its greatest breadth; it was formerly surrounded by ramparts, which have been razed of late years, and additional buildings and promenades have been constructed in their place. The citadel, which is regularly constructed, and one of the strongest in Italy, lies outside of the town to the westward. The principal streets of Turin are those leading to the four entrances of the town, which are- Porta del Po, on the road to Alessandria and Genoa; Porta Susina, on the western or Mont Cenis road; Porta Nova, on the southern road to Saluzzo and Nice; and Porta Vittoria, leading to Ivrea, Vercelli, Novara, and the other northern provinces. Several of the principal streets and squares are lined with arcades, which are much frequented by loungers. The principal square is the Piazza Castello, in the centre of the town, so called from an old castle or palace which stands in the middle of it, and which was formerly the residence of the dukes of Savoy. It has a handsome façade, ornamented with sculptures. The northern side of the square is formed by the modern royal palace, a vast structure, with gardens at the back of it: the apartments are handsome, and contain a rich collection of Flemish and Italian paintings and a library. Adjoining to the palace is the cathedral of S. Giovanni Battista, with the annexed handsome rotunda chapel, Del Sudario, cased with black marble, and adorned with gilt bronzes. On the eastern side of the square is the great theatre, one of the largest and finest in Italy, constructed by the architect Alfieri. Another remarkable building of Turin is-the University, built by king Victor Amadeus at the beginning of the eighteenth century. It is a fine building, with a spacious court, surrounded by arcades, which are lined with antient bassi-rilievi, and inscriptions fixed in the walls, many of which are valuable, and have been illustrated by Maffei and others. The library of the university contains above 112,000 volumes and about 2000 MSS., among which are the palimpsests, from the monastery of Bobbio, containing fragments of Cicero's orations Pro Scauro' and others, which have been deciphered and published by Professor Peyron. The Gallery of Antient Statues contains some remarkable objects, such as a Minerva, in bronze, discovered in 1829 near Voghera; a sleeping Cupid, a bust of the emperor Julian, and the Isiac Table. The Cabinet of Medals, one of the richest in Europe, contains 30,000 pieces. The Egyptian Museum, which is in the building of the Royal Academy of Sciences, consists chiefly of the collection made by M. Drovetti, long time consul in Egypt, which was purchased by King Charles Felix, and is one of the richest in Europe. It contains among others the colossal statue of Osymandyas, 15 feet high; those of Thothmes II. and of Amunoph II.: and that of Remeses II., or Sesostris, which is considered one of the handsomest specimens of Egyptian sculpture; a collection of Egyptian paintings on stone, a quantity oʻ utensils, articles of dress and ornaments, numerous mummies, and a vast collection of papyri and MSS. on linen, found in the catacombs of Thebes: among others, a funeral ritual, 60 feet in length; and the fragments of a chronological table of the dynasties of the kings of Egypt previous to the eighteenth dynasty. The university consists of five faculties,-divinity, law, medicine, surgery, and arts. Among the contemporary professors, Boucheron, professor of Greek and Latin; Peyron, of Hebrew and the Oriental languages; Plana, of mathematics; Giobert, of chemistry; are well-known names. There are also belonging to the university a museum of natural history, a museum of anatomy, a chemical laboratory and hydraulic apparatus, and lastly, a rich botanical garden at the Valentino, outside of the town, near the banks of the Po. About 2000 students attend the various courses. Altogether the University of Turin ranks as one of the first in Italy. The Royal Academy of Sciences, begun as a private society in 1759, and instituted as an academy in 1783, consists of forty members, besides non-resident and corresponding members: it is divided into two classes, mathematical and physical sciences, and moral, historical, and philological sciences. Lagrange, Bertrandi, Cardinal Gerdil, Count Morozzo, the chemist Moion, Count Balbo, the Orientalist Derossi, Count Xavier Maistre. the antiquarian Fea, Manno, the historian of Sardinia, Cibrario, the Chevalier della Marmora, and other wellknown names, are or have been members of this society. The Academy has published about 30 volumes of Memoirs. Turin has also an academy of the fine arts, a philharmonic academy, and an agricultural society, Reale Società Agraria, and a military college, Regia Militare Accademia,' newly organized, under the direction of the Chevalier Saluzzo. There are communal schools, divided into classes, in each district of the town; and also schools for drawing applied to the mechanical arts; and schools for the deaf and dumb and the blind. The charitable institutions of Turin are:-1, the Great Hospital of S. Giovanni Battista, for the infirm; 2, the Spedale di Carità, an asylum for destitute children and aged persons; 3, Spedale della Maternità, or lying-in hospital; 4, the Reale Albergo di Virtù, a house of industry for young men, who are taught various trades; 5, the house for the insane; 6, Opera di S. Luigi Gonzaga, a charitable institution, which administers out-door relief to infirm and other disabled poor persons, and has besides an hospital for persons afflicted with incurable chronic diseases, which is considered as a model of cleanliness and proper arrangement; 7, Monte di Pietà, which lends money to the poor without interest upon pledge. There are two penitentiaries, one for men and the other for women. Turin is an archbishop's see, whose province extends over the sees of Alba, Acqui, Asti, Cuneo, Fossano, Mondovì, Ivrea, Pinerolo, Saluzzo, and Susa. The metropolitan diocese contains the chapters of Turin, Moncalieri, Rivoli, Chieri, Carmagnola, Sandalmazzo, Giaveno, and Savigliano; and the clerical seminaries or colleges of Turin, Giaveno, Brà, and Chieri. The archbishop has a curia, or court for ecclesiastical suits, consisting of a vicargeneral and a pro-vicar, a chancellor, pro-chancellor and notary, a fiscal advocate, a counsel for the poor, besides secretaries. Those Turin contains a great number of churches, few of which are remarkable for their external architecture. worthy of notice are:-S. Filippo Neri, by the architect Giuvara, with several good paintings; the Consolata; the Corpus Domini, which is very richly decorated; Santa Teresa, Santa Cristina, La Trinità, and S. Carlo Borromeo. There are convents of Franciscans, Dominicans, Cistercians, Carmelites, Barnabites, Servites, Somaschi, Jesuits, Fathers of the Oratory, Brothers of the Christian Schools, missionaries of the Congregation of St. Vincent de Paule, besides several nunneries. In the suburb, on the right bank of the Po, facing the bridge, is the fine new church Della Gran Madre di Dio,' raised by the municipality of Turin, in memory of the restoration of the dynasty of Savoy, in 1814. It is an imitation of the Pantheon of Rome: it is cased with marble, and adorned with marble pillars. Higher up on the hill is the Capuchin church and convent Del Monte,' beautifully situated, like most Capuchin convents are, and enjoying a splendid view of the plain of Turin, the town, and the river, and of the crescent of the snow-capped Alps, from the lofty pyramid of Mount Viso on the west, to the picturesque group of Mount Rosa on the north-east. On a higher hill on the same side of the Po, but farther north, about 2000 feet above the sea, and five miles from Turin, is the Royal Basilica of La Superga (super terga montium), the St. Denis of Piedmont, containing the tombs of the princes of the house of Savoy. It was built from the design of Giuvara by king Victor Amadeus, in memory of the raising of the siege of Turin by the French, in September, 1706. It is a handsome structure; its lofty dome is seen at a great distance, and is the first object that strikes the traveller on approaching Turin. A congregation of twelve secular priests is attached to the service of the church. Every year, on the 8th of September, a great festival takes place at Superga high mass is performed, at which the court generally attends, and multitudes from Turin and the country around repair to the spot. After church service, the people spread about in the fields to eat, stroll, and dance the monferina, the lively national country-dance. The city of Turin has a municipal body, which enjoys considerable privileges, and directs the internal or civic administration of the town; it consists of a Corpo Decurionale, or council of about sixty members; two syndics; a vicario, who is at the head of the police department; a treasurer, and numerous accountants, commissaries, inspectors, and secretaries. The municipality of Turin has considerable revenues; it levies the 'octroi,' or duty at the gates upon provisions, and a tax upon mills; it adminisfers the municipal domains, and the city of Turin is styled in public documents 'l'ill strissima città di Torino, Contessa di Grugliasco, Signora di Beirasco. There is a board of commissioners, styled Consiglio degli Edili,' which superintends all new buildings and streets, and the repairs, embellishments, and additions which are made in the town or suburbs. Turin has two insurance companies and an organized body of firemen. The manufactories of Turin are of some importance; they consist of woollens, silks, hosiery, leather, paper, chinaware, carriages, a manufactory of arms, and a royal manufactory of tapestry or Gobelins. Turin has several theatres, besides the royal theatre already mentioned: the theatre of Carignano, for the opera; the theatre d'Angennes, for dramatic pieces unaccompanied by music; and the New Theatre. Piedmont has produced some of the best modern Italian dramatists -Alfieri, Federici, Olivieri, Nota, Pellico, and Marchisio. The nobility have a casino, or assembly-room. The coffeehouses of Turin are numerous, but, generally speaking, not so roomy or elegant as those of Milan or Naples. Besides the buildings already mentioned, the palace of Carignano, by the architect Guarini, is large, but in bad taste; the palace Birago di Borgaro, after the design of Giuvara, is in a better style; and that of the marquis de Prié has a gallery of paintings. The royal country-house called 'Vigna della Regina ' is a pretty villa finely situated on the hill on the right bank of the Po. The royal hunting palace and park of Stupinigi, four miles from Turin, are very fine; the palace was begun by Giuvara, and enlarged by Alfieri, the architect. At La Veneria, once a royal residence, about eight miles north of Turin, is the royal riding-school, stud, and veterinary college. The king of Sardinia has also palaces at Moncalieri, on the south side of the Po, about five miles from Turin, and at Rivoli, ten miles from the capital, on the high road to Susa and Mont Cenis; besides the royal palaces of Chambery and Genoa, which he uses when he visits those parts of his dominions. The population of the town of Turin, which at the beginning of the eighteenth century amounted to about 42,000, had risen to 76,000 in 1796, just before the French revolutionary invasion, after which it fell to about 65,000, at which amount it remained till the restoration. In 1816 it had risen again to 73,500, not including the suburbs. By the census of 1830, including the suburbs, it amounted to 116.000; and by that of 1833, to 119,909, out of which number there were 888 priests, 453 monks, and 227 nuns. Serristori, Statistica dell' Italia.) Diligences after the French fashion set off from Turin three times a week for Milan, Genoa, and France, besides numerous post-coaches, called 'velociferi,' which run between the capital and most provincial towns of the Sardinian territories. Living at Turin is reasonable, provisions of every sort are good and abundant, and the cooking is a medium between French and Italian cookery. The manners, habits, and dress of the people partake likewise of French and Italian. The national character is sociable, steady, and intelligent. There is a tone of formality and etiquette maintained by the court, which communicates itself to the upper ranks of society. The common language of conversation among the natives is the Piedmontese dialect; but Italian is the written and official language, and educated people speak both Italian and French. The climate of Turin is colder in winter than that of Genoa or Rome, but is much milder than that of Savoy or Switzerland. Upon the whole, Turin is a pleasant residence for a person of quiet habits; but being on the threshold of Italy, it is less noticed than it deserves by travellers, who hurry on to the south, to Genoa, Florence, Rome, and Naples, cities more thoroughly Italian than Turin. The antient Taurini were a tribe of the Ligures, who inhabited the country between the Po and the Cottian Alps. They are the first people whom Hannibal met after descending the Alps: they appear to have resisted him, and he took their town by force previous to advancing to the Ticinus. (Livy, xxi. 39.) They and the other Ligurians north of the Apennines were subdued by the Romans about 166 B.C., but their neighbours the mountaineers of the Cottian Alps were not reduced till the time of Augustus. Augustus sent a Roman colony to the town of the Taurini, which then took the name of Augusta Taurinorum. Under the Longobards Turin was the head town of a duchy: under the Carlovingians it was a county of considerable extent and importance, and a fief of the kingdom of Italy. In the tenth century we find Odelric Manfredi, count of Turin, styled marquis of Italy, who was the father of the marchioness Adelaide. [AMADEUS I.] Adelaide married Oddo, count of Maurienne, and from this marriage the house of Savoy derives its origin. During the war of the investitures between the popes and the emperors of Germany, most of the large towns in north Italy established their independence as municipal communities, in which the respective bishops had however a great influence; and Turin was among the number, but in the early part of the twelfth century the emperor Lotharius reduced it again to subjection; and although he respected its municipal liberties, he appointed again a count for its political governor. We find Amadeus III. of Savoy, count of Maurienne, about the middle of the twelfth century dating his diplomas from the town of Turin, of which he is styled marquis. The emperor Frederic I. made over, in 1159, to Charles, bishop of Turin, all the rights of the empire over that town, namely, the districtum' or jurisdiction, the fiscum,' or fiscal duties, and teloneum,' or customs, the walls of the city and all civil rights within and without for ten miles around. (Cibrario, Storia della Monarchia di Savoia, and the authorities therein quoted.) The bishops and commune of Turin remained for about a century after independent of, often at variance with, the counts of Savoy, who at last asserted again their suzerainty over the town and the right of appointing its chief magistrate. From that time the history of Turin is merged into that of the dynasty of Savoy, whose permanent residence it became ultimately. [SARDINIAN STATES.] Tesauro has written Istoria della Città di Torino,' 1679, with a Continuation by F. M. Ferrero, 1712; Rivautella and Ricolvi have published Marmora Taurinensia Illustrata,' 2 vols. 4to., 1743-47; Milanesio, Cenni Storici sulla Città e Cittadella di Torino,' 1826; Paroletti, Turin et ses Curiosités,' 1819, a guide-book; Borson, Catalogue raisonné du Musée d'Histoire Naturelle de l'Académie de Turin,' 1811; Peyron, Papyri Græci R. Taurinensis Musei Ægyptii editi atque illustrati, 1826. See also Millin, Voyages en Savoie et en Piémont, 1816; and Valéry, Voyages Littéraires en Italie. TORI'NUS, ALBA'NUS, the Latinized name of Alban Thorer, a Swiss physician, who was born in 1489, at Winterthur, in the canton of Zürich. He studied polite literature at Basle with zeal and assiduity, and, after teaching rhetoric for some years, he at last determined on taking the degree of Doctor of Medicine at Montpellier. Upon his return to Basle, in 1537, he was appointed professor of 6 Meissner very carefully analyzed it, and found it to consist, in the hundred parts, of-volatile oil, a trace; myricin 0.20; resin, 0.42; cerin, 0.51; tannin, 174; colouring matter, 18.05; ditto altered (oxydized?), 2-58; gummy extractive, 4.32; gum (pectin ?), 28-20; extractive, 7·70; woody fibre, 150; water, 6.45. Starch, though not found by Meissner, exists in it, as the tincture of iodine tinges the root a blackish-blue. No gallic acid is said to exist in it; while its presence is asserted by some, it is maintained to be ellagic acid by others. The colouring-matter resembles that found in the cinchona barks; it also has some resemblance to indigo. Water distilled from the fresh root has an agreeable rose-like odour. This plant contains more tannin than any other, except catechu and galls. An intimate relation subsists between the tannin and extractive and catechu. An infusion strikes a blackish-green (forming a tannate of iron) with sesqui-chloride of iron; on which account an ink has been recommended to be made with it and sulphate of iron; but where galls are to be had, this is not advisable. practical medicine, and soon acquired an extensive prac- | 2 inches thick; younger ones are cylindrical, irregularly tice. He died February 23, 1550, at the age of sixty-one. branched, the branches 1 to 2 inches long, and from oneLike several of his contemporaries, he employed himself in fourth to one-half inch thick, curved and twisted. The translating the works of the Greek medical writers into colour externally is a rusty or reddish brown; if very old, Latin of which he published the following: Polybi mixed with black. The epidermis and liber are very thin, Opuscula aliquot nunc primum e Graeco in Latinum but firm. The central part presents several, at least two, conversa, nempe de Tuenda Valetudine, sive de Ratione concentric circles; the texture is close and firm, more of a Victus Sanorum lib. i., De Seminis Humani Natura lib. i., horny than fibrous texture, greatly resembling rhubarb. de Morbis, sive Affectibus Corporis libri ii.,' Basil., 1544, The colour of the interior, when fresh, is a rose-red or 4to. Alexander Trallianus, Lat., Basil., 1533, fol. The fleshy colour; but when dried, it inclines more to a reddish first Latin translation of Paulus Ægineta, Basil., 1532, or brownish yellow; in very old specimens it becomes fol., which was afterwards improved and several times white. The fracture is uneven. It can be easily powdered. reprinted. This translation was severely criticised by The powder is of a bright brownish-red. The rose-odour Winther of Andernach (Guinterus Andernacus), which of the fresh root is utterly lost by drying. Taste purely drew from Thorer a very angry and somewhat abusive and strongly astringent. Specimens which are dark exteranswer entitled Epistola Apologetica, quâ Calomnias Im-nally, and woody and white within, are to be rejected. pudentissimas refellit,' Basil., 1539, 8vo. The first Latin translation of two works of Theophilus Protospatharius, with the title Philareti de Pulsuum Scientia Libellus, item Theophili de Exacta Retrimentorum Vesicae Cognitione Commentariolus,' &c., Basil., 1553, 8vo. In his translation of Theophilus De Urinis,' he is charged by Guidot (Not. in Theoph. De Urin., p. 234; et Alloq. ad Lect.) with having altogether omitted the pious epilogue to the work, and with having altered two other passages (in the Preface, and in cap. 8) so as to destroy the acknowledgment of our Lord's Divinity contained in them. Fabricius mentions also (Biblioth. Graeca, vol. xiii., p. 44, ed. Vet.) a translation of Theophilus's Commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates,' but this is probably a mistake. (See Fabric., Biblioth. Graeca, vol. xii., p. 649, ed. Vet.; Choulant, Handbuch der Bücherkunde für die Aeltere Medicin.) He also retouched the old Latin translation of Yahia Ibn Serapion Ben Ibrahim [SERAPION], and published it with the title Jani Damasceni Therapeuticae Methodi libri vii., partim Albano Torino, partim Gerardo Cremonensi Metaphraste,' Basil., 1543, fol. He published a Greek edition, in one volume, of several of Hippocrates's works, viz. Prognost.,' 'De Nat. Hom.,' De Loc. in Hom.,' 'Jusjur,' Basil., 1536, 8vo., and prefixed a Life of the author. He inserted a Latin translation of the Letter of Diocles Carystius to King Antiochus, De Secunda Valetudine Tuenda,' in the second edition of his translation of Alexander Trallianus, Basil., 1541, fol. He also edited a collection of medical works with the following title: De Re Medica huic Volumini insunt, Sorani Ephesii Peripatetici in Artem Medendi Isagoge hactenus non visa. Oribasii Sardiani Fragmentum de Victus Ratione, quolibet Anni Tempore Utili, antea nunquam editum. C. Plinii Secundi de Re Medica libri v. accuratius Recogniti, et Nothis ac Pseudepigraphis Semotis, ab Innumeris Mendarum Millibus Fide Vetustissimi Codicis Repurgati. Lc. Apuleji Madaurensis, Philosophi Platonici, de Herbarum Virtutibus Historia. Accessit his Libellus Utilissimus de Betonica, quem quidam Autonio Musae, nonnulli Lc. Apulejo adscribendum autumant, nuper Excusus,' Basil., 1525, fol. Besides these medical works he edited also Apicius, De Re Culinaria,' Basil., 1541, 4to.; S. Epiphanius, De Prophetarum Vitis,' Basil., 1529, 4to.; Agapeti Scheda Regia,' Lat., Basil., 1541, 8vo., at the end of Onosandri 'Strategicus; and Emmanuel Chrysolorae, Epitome Grammatices Graecae.' (See Fabric., Bibliotheca Graeca, vol. xiii., p. 44, ed. vet.; Biogr. Méd.; Choulant, Handb. der Bücherkunde für die Aeltere Medicin.) TORMENTIL, Tormentilla officinalis (Smith), erecta (Linn.), a small perennial plant, growing in the whole of Europe and the north of Asia, in forests, bogs, and heaths. Linnæus constituted this genus, but it is sometimes regarded as a species of the genus Potentilla. The root, or rather the rhizoma, is officinal. As the plant flowers in June and July, the best time to collect the rhizomata is in April and May. Those gathered in autumn, while they remain moist, are phosphorescent. The roots of the Tormentilla (Potentilla) reptans (Linn.), of the Potentilla Commarum, those of the common strawberry, and also of the Polygonum Bistorta, are frequently confounded with those of the true tormentil-errors of no great importance as far as their medical employment is concerned, as they possess properties similar in kind, but inferior in degree. In Italy the root of the geranium striatum is substituted for it. The rhizomata of the genuine plant are large in proportion to the branches they bear. They lie obliquely in the earth; old ones are knotty or resemble knobs, from 14 to Tormentil is the most powerful of our indigenous astringents, and more easily assimilated than oak-bark or galls. Though improper in active hæmorrhages, in passive discharges it is very useful, and may be given with aromatics, or opiates, or chalk, as in the compound powder of chalk. Infusion made with cold water is preferable to the decoction. The extract made in the common way soon spoils. But valuable as this substance is in medicine, it is of still greater utility in the arts and in agriculture. It may be most beneficially employed to tan leather, both where the oak grows and where it is absent, since one pound and a half of powdered tormentil is equal in strength to seven pounds of tan. It is used in Lapland and the Orkney Isles, both to tan and to dye leather, and in the latter parts to dye worsted yarn. By long boiling the tannin is converted into gum, and in times of scarcity the poor may collect and obtain much nourishment from the root. But the great service this plant renders in husbandry is its chiet merit. Where it grows abundantly in wet pastures, the rot in the sheep is unknown. It should therefore be extensively introduced into the irrigated meadows as a preventive of that destructive disease. Where the heather has been burned on the Highland hills, this plant springs up spontaneously with the tender grass. [ANTHELMINTICS.] TORMENTILLA (from tormentum), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Rosacea. This genus possesses an 8-parted calyx, of which four parts are external, and apparently accessory; the petals are 4. and inversely heart-shaped; the stamens are 16, and not half so long as the corolla; the styles are lateral and deciduous; the carpels are seated on a small hairy receptacle. The species are herbaceous plants with dissected and axillary and terminal flowers. The genus as thus constituted is well marked, although many authors refer it to Potentilla. Of the three species of Tormentilla, two are natives of Britain and Europe generally, and one of North America. T. erecta, Upright Tormentil, has an ascending, branched dichotomous stem; ternate leaves, with those on the stem sessile; the leaflets are oblong, acute, and deeply cut; the stipules are large and also cut; the pedicels are solitary, in the bifurcations of the stem; the petals are obcordate, and of a yellow colour. It is abundant in barren pastures. road-sides, and bushy places in Great Britain and other countries of Europe. It has been occasionally found with five petals, and also with double flowers. T. reptans, Creeping Tormentil, has procumbent, slightly branched stems; leaves divided into from three to five eaflets, which are deeply toothed, and hairy, as well as the petioles; the stipules are lanceolate and entire. It is a native of Europe, in much the same situations as the last. It is not so common in Britain as the last, but has been recorded as growing in many localities in Yorkshire, Essex, Norfolk, and Oxfordshire. T. humifusa, Trailing Tormentil, is a native of North America. It has short filiform procumbent stems bearing the flowers; the leaflets are five, deeply toothed, and covered beneath with a white tomentum. [TORMENTIL.] TORNADO, a whirlwind (from tornar, Spanish, 'to turn), a sudden and violent storm of wind, accompanied by thunder, lightning, and heavy torrents of rain: it frequently occurs in the West Indies, on the western coast of Africa, and in the Indian Ocean, particularly about the time of the equinoxes, or, in the latter region of the earth, at the changes of the monsoons. The storm continues in one place for a few hours, during which time the wind rapidly changes its direction; and it is described as blowing at once, or in succession, from all the different points of the compass. Tornado is however a general term, and, besides a whirlwind, it is employed to designate what is called a typhoon or hurricane. at south-west; and his inference is that a revolving tempest It has been supposed that the electric fluid, when col- From accounts of the tornados, the typhoons, or hurricanes which occur on the coast of Africa, it appears that there the approach of the storm is foreboded in the morning by the appearance, over the land, of dark clouds which move towards the sea, while a gentle breeze is blowing towards the shore soon afterwards the rain comes down in torrents, and the lightning darting from the clouds resembles showers of electric matter. While the tornado is passing over a ship, which may be four or five hours from the first appearance of the clouds, the flashes cease, but the rain continues, and a loud crackling noise, occasioned by the electric fluid descending along the masts, is distinctly heard among the rigging. After the squall has passed beyond the ship, the lightnings again appear to descend in sheets as they did on its approach. A less extensive whirlwind is frequently preceded by a remarkable tranquillity of the atmosphere and a sultry heat; when suddenly, within a circle of one or two hundred yards only in diameter, a revolving motion of the air commences, and is accompanied by thunder and rain: the velocity of the rotation gradually increases, and at length its violence is such as to tear up trees and destroy buildings which may be within the vortex. The whirlwind does not continue longer than half an hour, but in that short time the damage is immense, and the loss of life is frequently considerable. Dr. Franklin observed that great storms have a progressive movement on the surface of the earth, and he found that one which occurred in North America in 1740 advanced at the rate of about one hundred miles in an hour towards the north-east; but Colonel Capper, of the East India Company's service, who during twenty years had studied the phenomena of the atmosphere about Madras, first suggested the idea that all storms are tornados or whirlwinds of great extent, and showed that it might be possible to ascertain the place of a ship in a vortex from the degree of rapidity with which the wind changes its direction. Mr. Redfield, of New York, apparently without any knowledge of Colonel Capper's observations, discovered subsequently that, while on the coasts of North America hurricanes were blowing from the north-east, storms were raging in the Atlantic on the same parallel of latitude with the wind P. C., No. 1558. TORNEA. [FINLAND.] TO'RO, the capital of a province of Spain, formerly part of Zamora, but now a separate province, is supposed to be the Sarabris of Ptolemy. It is a large town, situated on the right bank of the Douro, on a gentle eminence which commands a view of an extensive plain, formerly called Campi Gothici, now Tierra de Campos: in 41° 45′ N. lat. and 5° 37' W. long. It is the see of a bishop, suffragan of Zamora, one of the most antient in the peninsula. The collegiate church is a handsome Gothic building, the erection of which is ascribed to Alfonso VIII. of Leon. There are also the remains of an antient castle, said to have been built by the Infante Don Garcia, forming a square of 143 feet, with a round tower at each angle. The bridge on the Douro, entirely built of freestone, and resting on twenty-two arches, is a remarkable piece of architecture. Near Toro was fought, in 1476, à battle, where the Portuguese under Alfonso V., surnamed Africano' (the African), were defeated by the Castilians. The population of Toro is about 10,000. (Miñano, Diccionario Geografico de España, viii. 480.) TORONTO, formerly York, and lately the capital of the province of Upper Canada, in North America, is situated on the north shore of Lake Ontario, about 40 miles from the west end of Burlington Bay, in 43° 35' N. lat. and 79° 20′ W. long. The town was founded in 1794 by Governor Simcoe. The French had previously a small palisadoed fort, a little to the west, which was called Fort Tarento or Torento. With the exception of this fort and two or three wigwams, the dwellings of a few Indians, the site of Toronto, when surveyed by direction of Governor Simcoe in 1793, was uninhabited, and the country was almost entirely covered with forest to the water's edge. The district, as it was gradu. ally cleared by the British, was called Toronto, after Fort VOL. 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