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changes in the apparel of this century, strongly impress upon the mind the declaration of holy writ, that the fashion of this world passeth away.' Nor is the direction given by St. Peter to the females of his day less important: "Whose adorning let it not be that outward adorning of plaiting the hair, and of wearing of gold, or of putting on of apparel," etc., 1 Peter iii. 3-6.

TRADES, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE.

In the sixteenth century, trades were followed as regular occupations, after the manner of later times, but on a far more limited scale; the large factories of our days were not then known. In the woollen trade, then the principal manufacture of England, the large clothiers, such as Winchcombe, styled Jack of Newbury, employed hundreds, perhaps thousands of workmen, who wrought mostly in their own houses. The large number of Flemish refugees, sheltered by Elizabeth, gave a new impulse to this trade, and the wealth of the nation was increased thereby. In 1565, thirty masters of these refugees, each with ten servants, were invited to settle at Norwich, and the number of foreigners settled there in 1571 was 3,925. In 1575, the Dutch elders there produced a new work, called bombazine. The cutlery trade was much enlarged by these strangers; the neighbourhood of Sheffield became the seat of this manufacture. We find the earl of Shrewsbury sending a box of Hallamshire whittells, or knives, as a present.

The general progress of society caused the demand for iron to increase largely. The art of casting iron was practised about 1550. This soon became a very important and increasing branch of trade, and consumed large quantities of fuel. The iron works of Sussex and Kent soon cleared those districts, once covered with forests; and had it not been found practicable to smelt the iron stone with pit-coal, the trade must long ago have been extinct in England. The

iron trade now is only carried on in districts where pit-coal abounds. But even in Lancashire, in the seventh year of queen Elizabeth, the furnaces were stopped, because the cattle required the tops and croppings of trees for sustenance in winter. The raising of artificial food for their supply was not then practised.

Mining much increased; considerable sums were expended in such adventures, with all the vicissitudes that attend these operations at the present day. A considerable quantity of silver, at one time, was found in Cornwall. But the absurdity of attempting the transmutation of metals still continued, and even increased.

In London, and other large cities, the different trades had their several guilds, or companies; and for the most part the artizans of the same line lived near together. Their rules tended to cramp the progress of trade; the true principles of commerce were then little understood.

Mary, during her short reign, interfered with the progress of commerce, by demanding loans from the merchants, and sometimes stopping exportation. Elizabeth had more enlarged views; she encouraged commercial transactions, and sometimes furnished capital for difficult enterprises.

The progress of commerce, especially with foreign countries, during this reign, was shown by the erection, in 1567, of a building, called the Burse, in London, principally that the merchants might meet and converse about business. The queen visited it in 1570, after dining in the city, at the house of sir Thomas Gresham, who had been one of the principal promoters of the building, when she expressed her satisfaction, and ordered that from that time it should be called the Royal Exchange. The accompanying engraving represents it as it then appeared.

In foreign commerce, merchants formed companies, to raise capital, to afford mutual protection, and to keep out interlopers. Among these companies were

the Merchants Adventurers, and the Russian Company. Towards the close of the reign of Elizabeth, the East India Company began, but not in a permanent or connected form. Individuals subscribed sums of money, as best suited their views; fleets were fitted out, and commodities exported, in lieu of which the products of the east were brought home. The cargoes being sold, the amount realised was divided among the adventurers, in proportion to the capital each had supplied. The first fleet sailed in May, 1601, with a charter of privileges, under captain James Lancaster. The capital subscribed was 68,3737. The ships returned in September, 1603, when the adventurers realised a handsome profit.

Several other voyages, upon the same principle, followed; the clear profits varied from twice to three times the original outlay. It is to be remarked, that the amount of bullion sent out much exceeded the value of the goods exported.

Foreign commerce was also largely increased by the discovery, or rather re-discovery of America, at the close of the fifteenth century, though this result was indirect, rather than direct, so far as England was concerned. The word re-discovery is used advisedly, as there is no reason to doubt, but that the Northmen made continual voyages from Iceland to North America, from the tenth to the twelfth centuries; this, however, does not lessen the merit and perseverance of Columbus. Towards the close of Elizabeth's reign, plantations or settlements were formed on the main land of North America, in consequence of the voyages and discoveries of Cabot.

Tobacco and potatoes were introduced by sir Walter Raleigh; the latter valuable root being planted by him in Ireland; but Hawkins is said to have brought it first from New Spain, in 1565.

The discovery of Newfoundland, in the reign of Henry VII., has been noticed; among the expenditure of that monarch is, "To him that found the new isle,