visible. It was concentric with the sun, and in diameter about one-third of the are between the zenith and the horizon, seemingly about fifty times the apparent diameter of the moon's shadow. This halo, visible only for half a minute, was effaced by another cloud, which again obscured the view. After a minute's breathless anxiety the 'curtain again rose, revealing the longed-for tableau, a grand, impressive sight! It presented itself through a rent in the clouds not greater in area than ten times that of the disc of the moon's shadow. That part of the opening which was above the eclipsed orb was clear like the sun at twilight, and in it were visible to the naked eye the planets Venus, Mercury, and half a dozen stars. The remaining part was covered with a thin haze. The moon's shadow appeared to the eye, assisted by a somewhat weak binocular glass, to be a dark circular disc with an even boundary and of uniform shade. Within the corona, and touching the circumference of this shadow, appeared five or six spots of brilliant carmine, varying in form and size, and at irregular distances apart. Two of these spots, or red flames,' as they are called, on the eastern side of the disc, and at about 55 deg. and 80 deg. respectively from the vertex, seemed tongue shaped, and protruded prominent; they "the about one-sixth width of the corona. In their neighbourhood the corona was brightest and widest. There, too, the rays of the corona appeared to be gathered more distinctly into groups than elsewhere, faint shadows being visible between the groups. The corona consisted of brilliant rays of extremely faint prismatic hues; these rays at first sight appeared pretty evenly distributed all round, but closer examination seemed to detect the fact of their being bundles of rays in nearly regular

groups. The width of the corona was about oneeighth the apparent diameter of the moon's shadow. It was very nearly concentric with the disc of the shadow; its boundary was well defined but ' jagged; the perimeter, except opposite the two most promi

nent red flames above mentioned, where the boundary slightly protruded, was circular. It was blowing a gale of wind while these notes were taken, which interfered somewhat with the steadiness of one's sight, either naked or assisted by glasses."

Mr. Richard Abbatt, F.R.A.S., also observed the phenomenon from the Rock, and writes as follows:

utility, from a military point of view, were very in the dark room. An ordinary hyposulphite
considerable, Mr. H. B. Pritchard, in whose solution is used for fixing; and when the film has
hands prints had been placed, determined to been dried and varnished no further fear need be
of the prints before the last traces of them had salt, the action of the intensifier and washing
attempt "the re-development, or reproduction, entertained from the deliquescent nature of the
vanished." Some time ago he drew attention to with water having dissolved out all compounds of
the suitability of a variety of collodion treated a soluble character.
with chloride of calcium for the preparation of
negatives from diapositives. This collodio-chloride
gives a brown, opaque, non-actinic film, which,
submitted to the action of ammonia vapour pre-
vious to printing, yields vigorous and brilliant
impressions. The great drawback to the employ-
ment of these collodions is to be found in the
deliquescent nature of the various salts used-cal-
cium, magnesium, lithium, and strontium acting
alike in this respect. A salt, however, which
while readily dissolving, even in absolute alcohol,
and which is at the same time non-deliquescent,
has been used, it is said, with some success by
Dr. Monckhoven in the preparation of collodio-
chloride, viz., the neutral hydrochlorate of is only about 60 years ago that gas began to

cinchonine.

After some ineffectual attempts to redevelop the pictures, Mr. Pritchard adopted the collodiochloride process for the purpose of reproducing the prints by direct contact, the modus operandi of which we proceed to give.

a tuft of cotton wool.

A large number of prints may be taken without any appreciable deterioration of the plates; and the prints and negatives produced by Mr. Pritchard are undoubtedly equal to the originals. It is seldom that we see a reproduced negative equal in every respect to the original; but by printing through transparencies, nsing the collodio-chloride process, and forcing the plates by fumigation both before and after the printing, this result appears to be easily attained.

PETEOLEUM v. GAS.

make itself felt as a rival of the old-fashioned oil-lamps which, so far from lighting the streets of London, just served to make the darkness visible. Numerous improvements have been introduced into the manufacture of coal-gas since that time, and it must be confessed there is still room for improveThe faded pictures are, in the first instance, ment. Mr. Silber, however, proposes now to light thoroughly impregnated with wax (paraffine and our houses with petroleum in a manner somewhat stearine having been found to give a lesser degree similar to the ordinary system of gas-pipes. The of transparency). The operation is accomplished apparatus used, as recently described by him before in the ordinary manner, care being taken to re- the Society of Arts, consists in a tank or reservoir move all superfluous wax by hot-ironing, and placed in the upper part of the house, seen in our illassubsequently rubbing the surface vigorously with tration at A, Fig. 1. It is made from wood, lined with tinned iron or sheet tin, and covered in with a lid The waxing of the prints provided with a small opening for the admission of alone suffices to deepen the contrast in the pic-nir, and with a screw neck through which to filter tures; for whereas the yellowish whites are thus the oil as it is poured in, a. From this tank lends rendered more transparent, the half tones and the the main service pipe B, the mouth of which is shadows still retain their brown opaque character, covered with fine wire gauze w, from which supply and minor details, previously quite invisible, pipes, E, branch to the different floors of the house. become apparent. These pipes lead into boxes F, provided at the bottom with screw nuts g, for the removal of de posit, and with wire partitions at the top f, for the purpose of still further straining the oil and preventing any dirt or other impurity from finding its way into and damaging the stop-cock G, which by means of a china float and lever, K M, keeps the oil at one level in the receiving box H, whence the burner L is supplied through the pipes I, i. These distributing cisterns, H, are open oblong boxes about 6in. or Sin. long, 3in. to 4in. wide, and about 3in. to 4in. deep, and the china float is set so as to shut off the supply as soon as the distributing cistern contains about 1in. of oil. The china float into which is fitted a piece of hard wood to which the M is a hollow double convex disc, pierced with a hole, lever is attached by a metal pin. The conical plug of the stop-cock G, which may be fastened with either a screw button or a metal pin, must be fitted very accurately in order to prevent any leakage when shut off. For better security, however, Mr. Silber fixes a small tap e to shut off the supply from the lamps not required, and in addition a tap in the main pipe shuts off the oil from all parts of the house. In case the ball tap should refuse to act the distributing cisterns are fitted with waste pipes J J, which take the overflow and convey it to the pipe C which communicates with the reservoir D sunk in the ground. In the event of fire, by turn ing the taps bd in the main service pipe B, the whole of the oil will be quickly run into the underground tank D.

The collodio-chloride is applied to a glass plate, "The weather during the day was very unfavour-coated, in the first instance, with a dilute aqueous able; heavy clouds driving from the west obscured the solution of albumen, and dried, and, when the sun almost continually, so that I had seldom to use a coloured glass. The following notes were made before collodion has perfectly set, it is placed before a the eclipse ended. I obtained my first view, when the clear fire, so as to become rapidly and thoroughly sun was nearly half obscured, at 11h. 17m. a.m., desiccated. The operation of fuming is then Gibraltar time, and I seldom took my eye from the proceeded with, the plate being passed, part by telescope, except to make a rough sketch of the eclipse, part, over the mouth of a bottle of strong liquid every five or eight minutes, as the clouds permitted, to the end. The last streak of the sun vanished and I ammonia until the bright varnished appearance This saw nothing; in about a second, as if instantaneous, of the film has become dull and matt. the corona and the red prominences were in view. I change in the aspect of the surface, which occurs was remarkably struck with the height and magnitude after the lapse of two or three minutes, indicates of the red flame-like appearances which extended as the completion of the process, and the plate, being far, or I think further, from the limb than the corona, again warmed, is placed in the printing-frame unless it shaded off. The bright part of the corona was narrow and next to the moon, but the corona was not upon the waxed positive, and the pad adjusted in of equal width all round. The moon, to my eye, ap- the ordinary manner. Too much attention cannot peared globular. In no part did the corona or the be given to secure the exclusion of moisture in prominences extend beyond 4th or at most 1-6th of the this operation. The fuming should take place in moon's radius beyond the limb. I thought the moon a dry, warm room, the pad and frames must be darker than the sky. I noticed four high red promi- free from damp, and the printing operation connences-there were more, but when, for an instant, I ducted in a locality where a condensation of obscured everything till the narrowest streak of the moisture need not be feared. If these precausan appeared on the western side, and nothing but the tions are not taken, and damp should happen to ordinary phenomenon of a partial eclipse was to be penetrate to the negative, the formation of spots The darkness during totality was not so great and stains upon the positive, as also upon the as I expected it would be. Two stars were seen, one collodio-chloride image itself, is unavoidable, and near the sun and the other overhead, but I can get no a rare and valuable print may be in this way further information as to their exact position." utterly destroyed. Washing and rubbing of the transparency may be successful in freeing the same from the silver salts adhering to it, but only if their reduction by light has not actually commenced.

took my eye off the telescope a dense black cloud had

seen.

It will be seen that, according to the accounts received up to the time of writing, the expeditions to Cadiz and Gibraltar have not met with the success desired. We know by telegram that the Sicilian and Oran detachments were equally unfortunate; and we can only hope that the weather was sufficiently propitious to enable the astronomers to settle some of the points in dispute on evidence which so rare a phenomenon alone renders available.

THE REPRODUCTION OF FADED

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTS.

ANY of the pictures taken during the early MANY of t, as our readers are

From the caution necessary in avoiding damp it will be seen how desirable it is that a collodion compound should be prepared with a non-deliquescent salt, and what great advantages will be obtained if Dr. Monckhoven succeeds in adapting the cinchonine salt to the purpose.

The constant supply of oil in the distributing cisterns H, allows of any number of burners being used, provided they are on the same level, and s pendant lamp can be employed in the manner showD in Fig. 1, where P is a spherical chamber containing Fig. 1 represents the apparatus as applied to two a distributing-box. In the illustrations we give floors, X and Y; Fig. 2 being a section of the small hermetically closed reservoir and the open distribut ing cistern with the stop-cock and float. Fig. 3 is a plan of the same, and Fig. 4a section of the flost.

It has been stated that it is almost impossible The construction of the lamp or burner depends to print too deeply in producing collodio-chloride of course on the nature of the oil to be burned, i... pictures; but we think that is saying too much, whether vegetable or mineral. No lamp has hither although we acknowledge that when it requires to been constructed which gives an equal amount of toning afterwards a film of collodion may be light for any lengthened period; but in proportion printed very deeply without any baneful conse-power of the lamp remains steady. In this manner as the oil is regularly supplied so the illuminating quences. In the present instance, however, no Cawel o clockwork lamp gives a light which remains aware, are now bleached and faded in a very high toning is required, but rather intensification, unimpaired for some hours, and which is only degree, and their finer detail almost completely which is adopted for the purpose of obtaining lost. Efforts have recently been made in the greater vigour. After sparingly flowing with photographic establishment at Woolwich to re-water, in order to allow the solution to pass freely produce some rare and valuable silver prints, over the surface, an intensifier is employed which have been attended with a very gratifying made up as follows:-Gallic acid, 75grs.; acetic measure of success. The pictures experimented acid (glacial), 2drms.; acetate of lead, 50grs.; with were executed about fifteen years ago, and aqua dist., 20oz. This is to be previously comprised views taken in the Crimea principally filtered and decanted. Where very great vigour of Sebastopol, the Malakoff, the Redan, and is required a little silver is added to the intensivarious other scenes of interest in connection fier, the working up of the plate being gradually with the Russian war. The negatives had for carried on until sufficient density has been atthe most part disappeared, and as their value and tained the operation of course being conducted

affected by the charring of the wick. In this respect petroleum possesses a great advantage over the ordinary oil light, as the wick chars much more slowly. A perfectly uniform light cannot be obtained from ordinary lamps on account of their construction, and it is in this direction, we imagine, the great improvement introduced by Mr. Silber will make itself felt. The principal conditions (1) a constant and steady supply of oil to the wick; necessary for the proper burning of petroleum are (2) means by which that portion of the oil about to be burned should be raised to the temperature st which it passes off in vapour, whilst the greater

WOOL.-Mr. A. Hamilton lately read before the Stawhich he pointed out that flax has increased in thirty tistical Society a paper "On the Wool Supply," in years 25 per cent.; silk, 59; cotton, 110; and wool, 349. Home-grown wool was thus estimated :-From sheep shorn, 124,017,4211b.; lambs, 2,470.1581b.; skin wool, 33,481,6291b.; total, 159,969,2081b. The amount of wool retained for home consumption in the year 1869 was

though very pretty and ingenious, would most certainly tumble down in a high wind. Under these circumstances, Mr. Brunel withdrew his designs, and as Telford reported equally unfavourably of the others, the committee requested him to prepare a design himself. This he did, but on this occasion appeared as a competitor, Mr. Davies Gilbert being appointed referee, the result being that Telford's design was put aside as too expensive, and Mr. Brunel's ultimately adopted, but it was not till a year after his death that the superstructure of the bridge was actually commenced. However, the competition for the Clifton Suspension Bridge had made Mr. Brunel well known in Bristol, and when the Great Western Railway Company was formed he was appointed engineer, March 7, 1833, from which time to his death he was fully employed as the engineer of railways, which in number and importance were not inferior to those of any of his contemporaries. We have not space to follow and trace the steps by which Mr. Brunel obtained the fame he so richly deserved. His works are well known; they can be seen and appreciated. His bridges are marvels of neatness and strength, and are remarkable for the small quantity of material used in their construction; and although Hungerford Bridge no longer graces the Thames, the Chepstow Bridge and the Royal Albert Bridge at Saltash remain as monuments of a man of no ordinary genius.

Notwithstanding the immense amount of labour connected with the various railways on which he was engaged Mr. Brunel yet found time to practically demonstrate the feasibility of regularly navigating vessels across the Atlantic by the aid of steam. In 1836 the Great Western Steamship Company was formed, and the first of a line of steamers to run from Bristol to New York was

generally." As an instance of the petty ill-feel-
ing displayed by the heads of departments we
will quote the following passage:-"When they
(the engines) were approaching completion, he
became anxious to learn something about the
progress of the ship which was to have been built
for them. Nowhere could she be found. The
minutes were searched at the Admiralty, and it
was ascertained that the ship was ordered, but
that no ship had been laid down. This discovery,
as might be supposed, excited considerable sur-
prise. Mr. Brunel was sent for to the Admiralty
to see Sir George Cockburn, the First Naval Lord.
Almost the first words to him were: 'Do you
mean to suppose that we shall cut up her Majesty's
ships after this fashion, sir?' Sir George at the
same time pointing to a model of the stern of an
old-fashioned three-decker, in which large slices
were taken off to give room for the screw, and the
whole of the lower deck exposed to view, thus
making the application of the screw look very
ridiculous. Or the model was written, Mr.
Brunel's mode of applying the screw to her
Majesty's ships.' Mr. Brunel smiled, and denied
it being his idea at all; he had never seen it be-
fore, and knew nothing about it. Why, sir, you
sent it to the Admiralty! This also Mr. Brunel
denied having done. While an inquiry was being
made as to where the model came from, Mr.
Brunel employed himself in effacing the inscrip-
tion with his knife. When the messenger re-
turned, he reported that the model had come from
the office of the Surveyor of the Navy. He was
sent for, but did not appear. Mr. Brunel, to
terminate this awkward interview, pleaded busi-
ness and bowed himself out."

It is of course well known that the experiments
were successful, and led to the adoption of the
screw in the navy; but, will it be believed? "the
services which Mr. Brunel rendered to the country
during these proceedings, were given entirely
without pecuniary recompense, and in the face of
opposition and discouragement."

commenced. The Great Western was launched
on July 19, 1857, and proceeded to London to
take her engines on board. She left Bristol for the
voyage to New York on April 8, 1838, at 10 a.m.,
and arrived at her destination at 2 p.m. on the In 1851, Mr. Brunel became the engineer of
23rd, having only consumed three-fourths of the the Australian Mail Company, and it was during
coal she had taken on board, thus completely up- this period that he conceived the idea of a great
setting the theories of Dr. Lardner and others, ship" for the Indian and Australian service, for
who had maintained that steamers could not carry we find him writing "In February and March,
sufficient coal for the voyage, which opinion, how-1852, I matured my ideas of the large ship,
ever, was modified by saying that, if possible,
navigating vessels across the Atlantic by means
of steam would not be profitable. The directors
of the company were so satisfied with the per-
formance of the Great Western that they deter-
mined to build another ship of not less than
2,000 tons burden. At the suggestion of Mr.

and in March I made my first sketch of one with
paddles and screw. The size I then proposed was
600 x 70, and in June and July I determined on
the mode of construction now adopted of cellular
bottom; intending then to make the outer skin of
wood for the sake of coppering." We have not
space to enter into the numerous prejudices which

Brunel a committee was appointed to report on had to be overcome, nor can we even describe the
the advantages of using iron as exemplified in the vicissitudes of fortune which ruined the original
Rainbow, a vessel then running to Antwerp. The company, or the various difficulties which were
report was so satisfactory that it was determined encountered in the attempt to launch the ship,
to build the Great Britain of iron, and accord-suffice it to say that the vessel was commenced in
ingly the keel-plates were laid on July 19, 1839, 1854, and was successfully floated on Sunday,
and the vessel launched on Dec. 11, 1844. On Jan. 31, 1857. Since that time her career is fresh
the advice of Mr. Brunel the directors adopted in the minds of our readers; and though the
the screw propeller, which up to that time Great Eastern has not yet been engaged on the
had only been tried in an experimental vessel, the work for which she was originally designed by
Archimedes. She left Liverpool on her first Mr. Brunel, her employment in the promotion of
voyage on August 26, 1845, and arrived at New great scientific enterprises has been an occupa-
York on September 10, having made the passage tion worthy of her connection with his name.
out in 14 days 21 hours. After making several Mr. Brunel died before the success of his great ship
other voyages (in one of which she broke her was demonstrated; but that he had little doubt
screw, and proved her sailing qualities by reach- of her capabilities is evident from the fact that
ing home under canvas in 18 days) she unfortu- when Mr. Cyrus Field came over to this country
nately ran ashore in Dundrum Bay, and although in 1856, in connection with the proposed Atlantic
she was rescued by the skill and ingenuity of Mr. Cable, Mr. Brunel, who showed great interest in
Brunel, the mishap led to the ruin of the com- that undertaking, took Mr. Field to Millwall to
pany, and the vessel was sold to Messrs. Gibbs, see the Great Eastern, and said, "There is the
Bright, & Co., of Liverpool, by whom she was ship to lay the Atlantic cable."
repaired and fitted with different engines. On
examination it was found that she had not been
strained in any way; and in the latter part of
1851 she was taken out of dock, and since that
time has made regular voyages between Liverpool
vessels on that line, and remains to testify to the
She is known as one of the fastest
ability and wisdom of those who, more than 30
years ago, were daring enough to build so large a
ship of iron, and to fit her with the screw pro-
peller." In 1841 Mr. Brunel was appointed to con-
duct experiments for the Admiralty on the appli-
cation of the screw to the ships of her Majesty's
navy; but in consequence of the numerous
hindrances thrown in his way he wrote to the
Admiralty declining any further interference. On
receipt of this resignation Mr. Brunel was sum-
moned to the Admiralty, and after a "tedious fene-
it ended in all parties being written to and
ing"
told they were to follow my directions, and that I
was to proceed to give such instructions as should
enable a full experiment to be made of all screws

and Australia. "

of the book itself, which contains a number of Mr. Brunel's most interesting letters, and illus trations of his more important works. The details of many of them are given, with the reasons for their adoption which influenced the designer; and altogether this book, which is peculiarly interesting to civil engineers and naval architects, will not fail to entertain the ordinary reader.

Principles of Mechanism. By ROBERT WILLIS,
M.A., F.R.S. Second edition. London:
Longmans & Co.
so well known as an
PROFESSOR WILLIS is
authority on the principles of mechanism that
to review his work in
it is needless for us
extenso. Suffice it to say that the book contains
chapters on trains of mechanism in general,
rolling contact, sliding contact, wrapping con-
nectors, link work, friction, and universal joints.
The present volume is, however, limited to that
part of the subject of machinery which deals with
the communication of motion, the object being to
systematize this portion and to free it from the
consideration of force, with which it has usually
been mixed up. In his preface Professor Willis
says, "I have taken a different course from the
one hitherto followed, in respect that, instead of
considering a machine to be an instrument by
means of which we may change the direction and
velocity of a given motion, I have treated it as
an instrument by means of which we may pro-
duce any relations of motion between two pieces."
The work is designed for students in the univer
sities, and for engineering students generally, and
is abundantly illustrated.

Use and Limit of the Imagination in Science. By
JOHN TYNDALL, LL.D., F.R.S. London: Long.
mans & Co.
PROFESSOR TYNDALL has here reprinted the ad-
dress he delivered at the last meeting of the
British Association, together with one delivered
at the Norwich meeting. He has also added what
he calls "Pros and Cons," being opinions of the
press on the first edition. A digest of the whole
has already appeared in our columns.

SELECTED ARTICLES,

UTILIZING COAL WASTE. ports, Sayin tam en dit has been demonERHAPS, says the Iron Age, one the most strated to be practical, inventions of the day, in view of the high prices of fuel, is that referred to under the above heading. Some time since, a com pany was formed in America, with a view to utiliz ing the refuse of coal-mines, the accretions of which have not only been enormous, but of serions inconvenience to the operator, and hitherto valueless. The enterprise has proved a complete success, Mauch Chunk, and the fuel, as prepared from the buildings and machinery have been erected at coal-dust, is said to be superior to the natural coal, burning without cinder or impurity of any kind. Unfortunately for the good of the general public, the Secretary of the Navy, after testing the fuel, has entered into a contract for all the present works are capable of turning out. The fuel, as supplied to the government, is in cubes of five inches. From the regularity of shape, great advantage can be had in stowage, while the absence of cinder and, comThe price is said to be lower considerably than that paratively, of ashes, renders it peculiarly desirable. of coal in its present form. The supply of the refuse is inexhaustible, and this improvement gives us another advantage over the impracticable miners, who may strike at will if we can but utilize the dust which we have above ground by millions

of tons.

Mr. Brunel was cut off in the prime of life, and in the zenith of his fame. On the 5th of September, 1859, he was on board the great ship superintending the preparations for getting her to sea, As a process has been lately ventilated by but feeling symptoms of failing power he went to which coal has been ground to a fine dust, and evident that he was attacked with paralysis, and most eminent success, we suggest the use of the his home in Duke-street, where it became carried by blowers into the furnace with sufficient air to produce immediate combustion, and with the he gradually sauk, till on the 15th all hope was dust already on hand for similar treatment, not over. A window in Westminster Abbey enshrines doubting equal results will be obtained. Any prohis name amongst the great men of England; a cess or invention which cheapens the necessaries of statue has been executed by Baron Marochetti life to the consumer is of prime valne, and as fuel for which a site was promised by the Chief Com- may be looked upon as the sine qua non of industry, missioner of Works, but it has not yet been as of comfort, the inventions alluded to deserve erected. However, men like Brunel and Stephen- more than casual notice. son require no statues to commemorate their names: their memorials are their works, and so long as our railways carry us by land, and our ships traverse the seas, their memories will be green in our recollections and their names shine brightly on the muster-roll of Britain's greatest men.

We have left ourselves but little room to speak

THE CONDOR.

SP PEAKING recently of this member of the

the hands

that probably no bird is so unfortunate
vulture family, Professor Orton remarked
of the curious and scientific as the condor. Fifty
years have elapsed since the first specimen reached

Europe, yet to-day the exaggerated stories of its size and strength are repeated in many of our text-books, and the very latest ornithological work leaves us in doubt as to its relation to the other vultures. No one credits the assertion of the old geographer, Marco Polo, that the condor can lift an elephant from the ground high enough to kill it by the fall; nor the story of the traveller, so late as 1830, who declared that a condor of moderate size, just killed, was lying before him, a single quill feather of which was twenty paces long. Yet the statement continues to be published that the ordinary expanse of a full-grown condor is from 15ft. to 20ft., whereas it is very doubtful if it ever exceeds or even equals 12ft. I have a full-grown male from the most celebrated locality in the Andes, and the stretch of its wings is 9ft. Humboldt never found one to measure over 9ft.; and the largest specimen which Darwin saw was 8ft. from tip to tip. An old male in the Zoological Gardens of London measures 11ft. It is not yet settled that this greatest of unclean birds is generically distinct from the other great vultures. My own observa

tion of the structure and habits of the condor in

cline me to think it should stand alone. Associated
with the great condor is a smaller vulture, having
brown or ash-coloured plumage instead of black and
white, a beak wholly black instead of black at the
base and white at the tip, and no caruncle. It in-
habits the high altitudes, and is rather common.
This was formerly thought to be a distinct species;
but lately ornithologists have with one accord pro-
nounced it the young of the Sarcoramphus gryphus
-a conclusion which I cannot wholly endorse.
The usual habitation of the royal condor is be-
tween the altitudes of 10,000ft. and 16,000ft. The
largest seem to make their home around the volcano
of Cayambi, which stands exactly on the equator.
In the rainy season they frequently descend to the
coast, where they may be seen roosting on trees;
on the mountains they rarely perch, but stand on
the rocks. They are most commonly seen around
vertical cliffs, perhaps because their nests are there,
and also because cattle are likely to fall there.
Flocks are never seen except around a large carcase.
It is often seen singly, soaring at a great height in
vast circles. Its flight is slow. It never flaps its wings
in the air, but its head is always in motion as if in
search of food below. Its mouth is kept open and
its tail spread. To rise from the ground it must
needs run for some distance; then it flaps its wings
three times and soars away. A narrow pen is,
therefore, sufficient to imprison it. In walking the
wings trail on the ground and the head takes a
crouching position. Though a carrion bird it
breathes the purest air, and spends much of its
time soaring three miles above the sea. Humboldt
saw one fly over Chimborazo. I have seen them
sailing at 1.000ft. above the crater of Pichincha.
Its gormandizing power has hardly been overstated.
I have known a single condor, not of the largest
size, to make away in one week with a calf, a sheep,
and a dog. It prefers carrion, but will sometimes
attack live sheep, deer, dogs, &c. The eyes and
tongue of a carcase are the favourite parts and first
devoured; next the intestines. I never heard an
authenticated case of its carrying off children, nor
of it attacking adults, except in defence of its eggs.
In captivity it will eat everything except pork and
fried or boiled meat. When full fed it is exceed
ingly stupid, and can be caught by the hand; but
at other times it is a match for the stoutest man.
It passes the greater part of the day sleeping,
searching for prey in the morning and evening. It
is seldom shot (though it is not invulnerable, as
once thought), but is generally caught in traps.
The only noise it makes is a hiss like that of a goose
-the usual tracheal muscle being absent. It lays
two white eggs on an inaccessible ledge. It makes
no nest proper, but places a few sticks around the
eggs. By no amount of bribery could I tempt an
Indian to search for condor's eggs, and Mr. Smith,
who had hunted nearly twelve years in the Quito
Valley, was never able to get sight of one. Incu-
bation occupies about seven weeks, ending in April
or May (in Patagonia much earlier, or about Feb-
ruary). The young are scarcely covered with dirty
white brown, and are not able to fly until nearly
two years old. D'Orbigny says they take the wing
in about a month and a half after being hatched,
a manifest error, for they are then as downy as
goslings. It is five months moulting, and while at
that stage, when its wings are useless, it is fed by
its companion. As may be inferred, the moulting
time is not uniform. Though it has neither the
smelling powers of the dog (as proved by Darwin),
nor the bright eyes of the eagle, somehow it dis-
tinguishes a carcase afar of. The female is smaller
than the male, an unusual circumstance in this
order, the feminine eagles and hawks being larger

than their mates.

THE COMPARATIVE ENERGY OF

ANTISEPTICS.

R. F. CRACE CALVERT has performed two the comparative powers of various substances

McDougall's disinfecting powder
Carbolic disinfecting powder
Chloralum (made lately).
Chloride of zinc
Chloride of lime
Permanganate of potash
Tar oil
Carbolic acid
Cresylic acid
None

ordinarily used as antiseptics. The first consisted,
says the British Medical Journal, in placing in
bottles (not corked) solutions of albumen and four
paste. To these he added various proportions of
some of the substances patronized at the present
time as antiseptics, and the above table shows the

results obtained.

This table he considers clearly to show that the only true antiseptics are carbolic and cresylic acids; and these results coincide with those obtained by Mr. William Crookes, F.R.S., Dr. Angus Smith, F.R.S., and Dr. Sansom. These two acids continued their action till the albumen solution and paste dried up. The second series had the object of ascertaining which of the undermentioned substances would possess the most active power in destroying sach germs, and thus preserving the animal substances from decay. At the bottom of wide-mouthed pint bottles, Dr. Calvert placed a known quantity of each of the antiseptics, and suspended over them by a thread a piece of sound meat; and, by daily examination, it was easily ascertained when the meat became tainted or putrid. The following table gives the results obtained :

Became tainted.

Antiseptic used.
Permanganate of potash 2 days.

Chloralum

McDougall's disinfecting
powder
Chloride of lime
Tar oil.....
Chloride of zinc..
Carbolic disinfecting
powder
Carbolic acid
Cresylic acid...

2

10

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS, AND SUGGESTIONS
FOR PREVENTING THEIR FREQUENT

OCCURRENCE.*

BY W. B. JOHNSON, C.E.
THE early history of our railways does, I believe,
of our

were mainly due to the breakage and derangement
of some portions of the rolling machinery, and this
to a much greater proportion than prevails at the pre-
sent time. We rarely hear now of any fatal accidents
arising from the breakage of the locomotive engine,
yet 25 years ago they were far from being uncom-
mon, especially if we include accidents arising from
boiler explosions, and engines running off the lines.
This observation is made, because it is necessary
in looking at a question such as is now under con-
sideration, to ascertain if possible how this change
has been brought about. In the first place it must be
remarked that the traffic upon our railways, both
goods and passenger, has increased to an almost in-
credible extent within the period just named; but
the writer is inclined to believe that the change has
not arisen from this altered condition (as regards
traffic), but is to be accounted for in some degree
by the very marked improvements that have been
made in the locomotive engine itself: for instance,
the accurate balancing of the working and fixed
parts of the engine, that obtains at the present day.
has done much to reduce the number of accidents
arising from broken axles and running off the line.
The inquiry may very reasonably be made as to
whether corresponding improvements have been
made in the other departments of railway construc-
tion and management. The answer is somewhat
doubtful, for while the locomotive engine has
steadily improved under the united and untiring
labours of many able scientific engineers, the system
of railway points or switches and signals remains
the same in principle, if not in practice, to that
earliest railways.
in
The present arrangement and construction of
points and signals do not appear to be adapted
to meet safely the requirements of the traffic of to-
day, as is too clearly demonstrated by the many
recent accidents. An arrangement of points might
be adopted, that would considerably reduce the
number of accidents now occurring, and that by
placing the points on the main lines, so that in all
cases without any exception (saving at terminals

Remained sound. Remained somnul 7 days.

having no through traffic and main junctions) they all open in a direction opposite to that in which the trains run.

It must be apparent that under such an arrangement, accidents could not take place by a train being inadvertently turned into a siding, such as occurred at Tamworth, on the London and North Western Railway, not many weeks since; and all accidents of this class might, under such an arrangement of points just named when generally applied, be considered as impossible of occurrence. No doubt in many cases such an arrangement of the points is adopted, perhaps for the sake of convenience only, but the full benefit can only be derived by its universal practice.

More than twenty-five years since, the writer represented to several railway officials the security arising from the carrying out of such a system of points into general practice; but it was then considered as carrying precautionary ideas too far, and convenience had the rule, and appears to have had up to the present day. Of course the increase of traffic has materially increased the contingencies leading to accidents, and the question may be fairly raised-whether railway companies should be allowed to take any amount of traffic they may choose to do, without being compelled, by parliamentary enactment if necessary, to provide in overy possible way against accident to the lives of the passengers committed to their charge. The usual objections of expense and inconvenience will no doubt be made against carrying out universally the arrangement of points now named, but whatever those objections might amount to, the writer is of opinion that in the long run its adoption would be found to be beneficial to the shareholders of our railways, and it would contribute in some degree to the safety of the travelling public.

There are two other sources of accidents on our railways that require notice-one the system now so prevalent of centralizing the signals, and the other the breaking and making up of trains on the main

some time or other, lead to accident, and it is
unreasonable to expect a man at such critical
junctures always to do the right thing.
The mechanism
objection to the centralizing of signals arises from
the working of the distant ones.
required to form the connection between the
signal box and the signal itself, is on account
of the distance liable to derangement, being
affected by frost, heat, and rain, and repairs
and adjustments are frequently necessary, thus
creating another class of contingencies that may
lead to accident. And it may be further observed
that it does sometimes occur that the distant signals
are beyond the observation of the signalman in his
box, and always so in thick weather; so that he
has no chance of knowing, in such cases, whether
the signals answer to his workings in the box or not.

The breaking and making up of trains on the main line has been the occasion of many accidents, and its continuance, especially upon lines having a large traffic, must lead to similar results. It needs no argument to show that a line of railway upon which such work is never done has removed one contingency to accident, and to that extent it is a safer line to travel upon.

To these contingencies leading to accident might be added others, but the writer will now only refer to the one arising from imprudent management, in allowing slow and sometimes even luggage trains to precede an express without sufficient margin of time.

Viewing these contingencies together, as combining to bring about one result, viz., accidents, we must cease to wonder that they are so frequent, and begin to wonder that they so seldom occur.

PALMER'S PATENT ROCKING CHAIR.

A chair holds a prominent position among house LTHOUGH the good old-fashioned rocking hold furniture, and is regarded not only as a luxury, but almost a necessity, yet it has many and some serious objections. The projecting rockers are not only inelegant, but often a serious inconvenience, endangering those who would pass around or behind the chair, to say nothing of their peculiarity to mar the room and articles of furniture or their liability to breakage.

We illustrate a rocking-chair in which these objections are obviated, as the long curved, ever-inthe-way rockers are dispensed with. The invention consists in providing for the rocking or the adjustment of the inclination of the back or seat relatively to the base to which it is pivoted by means of arms composed of flat steel springs.

The accompanying cuts show this chair in two positions. Fig. 1 represents it in its position when

FIC.I.

unoccupied, and Fig. 2 when tilted back, as will be the case when a person is reclining in it.

In construction, the seat and back of the chair are made together, and hung on a pivot or bolt running through the base-frame and seat. The arms are composed of spring steel, tempered, and

FIC.2

are attached, one end to the back of the chair and the other to the base-frame. These springs steady the chair and allow a free movement on the pivot, exerting a sufficient force on the rocker to prevent a too far forward and backward motion, and to b: ing the chair into its proper position when at rest. These springs can be covered or upholstered as taste may dictate.

This improved rocking-chair was patented through the "American Artisan Patent Agency," by Theo dore J. Palmer, of New York City.

ON FERMENTATION.* HAVE sometimes wished, when building castles in the air, that I could, after a few hundred years, come back and see the state of science at that time. I am convinced that those who will look back from such a period as a few hundred years hence, at the present state of our knowledge * Cantor Lectures delivered before the Society of Arts by PROFESSOR A. W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.

of nature, in any one department, will be surprised been known to occur in which several other pro-
at its smallness; in fact, even now, when we work ducts have not been formed simultaneously with
nature, we cannot refrain from feeling how little perties of these two bodies, the
at all earnestly at any one part of the field of these two. With regard to the difference of pro-
is our knowledge compared with our ignorance. points of some little interest, especially this one,
But, if that is generally the case, I think it is pe- that whereas alcohol is an eminently combustible
culiarly the case in those studies in which life is substance, and is well known to have properties of
concerned; and the phenomena of fermentation that kind, being frequently used as fuel, on the
have that peculiarity that they consist of processes other hand, carbonic acid, the other chief product,
in which vital organisms are concerned, and in is completely burnt-it is a substance incapable of
which there is every reason to believe that vital undergoing any chemical change whatever analogons
organisms, or living beings, take an active and to combustion. Alcohol is a substance which I
leading part. I need not say that, for that reason, need not show you, although in its pure state it is
the explanations which we have, even of the simplest not very common, but I will, in order to remind
and best known of the phenomena of fermentation, those of you who may be less familiar with its
are as yet mere sketches of the reality. It is, leading properties, make a little carbonic acid by a
however, not the less useful or the less important short process. I will put a little muriatic acid
to know them for that reason.
upon some white marble, and the apparent ebulli-
tion which you see takes place is known to you all
as due to the liberation of carbonic acid. You
might imagine the thing to be fermenting, only
that the process in that case would be less rapid.
Now, if I plunge this little burning paper gradually
into the jar containing the carbonic acid, it will
burn more and more faintly, and get extinguished
when it enters the gas; it is totally impossible to
set fire to the gas. And there is one other fact
that we may notice at the same time-the great
specific gravity which characterizes this gas. I
will show you that, in this way. I will go through
the motion of pouring from this jar containing it
into another smaller jar, and no doubt the heavy
carbonic acid will pass from the jar in which I first
collected it into the lower one, where we shall find
it by means of the taper as before. You see that,
on lowering the lighted taper into this small jar it
is extinguished as it was before. I will show you the
test by which we usually discover the presence of
carbonic acid. I have here some water containing
lime in solution-some lime water-and I will pour
it into the large beaker glass, in which there is
probably still some carbonic acid left. You see the
solution immediately becomes turbid, or, as we
express it, a precipitate is formed by the combina
tion of the carbonic acid with the lime water.
compound is formed, which is nearly insoluble in
the water, called carbonate, which goes down as
precipitate.

When we chemists are classifying substances, we
adopt a principle of classification which I think is
almost inevitable, but it may be as well that I
should mention what it is. We put the simple
things together, and the complex or difficult things
together, and then we try to put between them, in
as regular an order as possible, the intermediate
links of the chain by which they can be connected;
and I believe that our best-I might almost say
our only-explanations consist in thus arranging,
in a natural order, the facts which we have to
consider, and then viewing them, and stating what
we see, in the clearest and least ambiguous terms.
Now, the term "organic," as applied to a certain
class of chemical substances, might be replaced-
and I think, for some purposes, ought to be replaced
-by the term "complex." The substances which
we are in the habit of including under the term
organic are peculiarly complex; in fact, they are
the most complex with which we have to do. The
phenomena of fermentation relate mainly to them,
and consist principally of a process of change-the
breaking-up of those organic bodies into rather less
complex substances than themselves-a process of
partial analysis. Of course, when I say that I give
what I conceive to be a characteristic idea of the
general method, and I must not be supposed to
assert that all processes of fermentation are
analytical.

Amongst the characteristics which, I think, are particularly useful and interesting, as serving to In addition to alcohol and carbonic acid, I ought distinguish organic from inorganic, complex from to mention another kind of alcohol, which occurs to simple substances, is their different behaviour a considerable extent in some distilleries where raw under heat. I have found it exceedingly interest- grain or potato starch is used. This substance ing and instructive to bear in mind the fact that imparts to the product a very unpleasant odour, while simple and inorganic compounds, as we and some unwholesome qualities. It is known by generally call them, are sometimes destroyed and the name of fousel oil. It does not mix with water, resolved into other compounds by the action of a and if I were to pour some of it on water it would high temperature, yet many of them are not. float, without dissolving to any considerable extent. Amongst inorganic substances we find some which There are some other products which are even are broken up or changed by exposure to a high more interesting and important; two especially I temperature, but there are others which can stand ought to mention. One is the clear substance even the highest temperature without undergoing which you see in this bottle, and which you might any permanent change that is to say, they return, imagine to be oil; it is a fluid largely made now, on cooling, to the same state in which they were and known by the name of glycerine, but in before the heat was applied. With organic sub-chemical language I should say that this was an alstances that is not the case. All organic bodies are cohol. It is a substance which, by tasting, you broken up into minute particles, and assume new might mistake for sugar, for it possesses a sweet arrangements, when they are heated to a sufficiently high temperature; and that is, I think, a distinction which is of considerable theoretical as well as, perhaps, of some practical importance.

The processes of breaking up which are effected by heat upon organic bodies are in the very great majority of cases different from those which are effected by the action of those wonderful little organisms, the ferments; and it is a peculiarity of the action of the ferments that they effect the breaking up the analysis of complex organic substances, and form products which, for the most part, we have obtained from those materials by no other process.

Amongst the processes of fermentation there is one which, from its pre-eminent importance, and from the fact that we have had occasion to study it more fully than any other, ought to be first mentioned. I allude to the process of fermentation by which alcohol is formed artificially. I may say, indeed, it is the only process by which alcohol is ever made. It is a process which consists in breaking up some kind of sugar, for sugar is a word which, although popularly restricted to one parfrom the sugar-cane and sometimes from beet-root, ticular substance, which is extracted sometimes is used by chemists in a more general sense, serving to characterize a family of bodies which have much in common with one another, being for the most part all of them sweet and containing the same elements, but in slightly different proportions. They all possess many properties which are of some importance. These different kinds of sugar are broken up by the action of ferment into alcohol, and also into another product, carbonic acid gas, which has been long known, and for a long time the process of alcoholic fermentation was supposed to consist simply in a separation of sugar into these two products, alcohol on the one hand and carbonic acid on the other. A more careful examination of the products has shown, however, that these two never appear alone. I believe I may safely say, from the researches of Pasteur and others, that no case of the formation of alcohol by fermentation has

taste resembling sugar, but to chemists it is a kind of alcohol, and its appearance during fermen tation together with ordinary alcohol is no doubt due to a process of the normal kind.

Another product which I might compare to the carbonic acid which I just now showed you, is this beautiful crystalline acid substance, which has been long known by the name of succinic acid. It got that name from the fact that it was originally prepared from amber. By subjecting the amber to dry distillation, succinic acid, among other products, is formed. Glycerine and succinic acid, as well as common alcohol and carbonic acid, are always formed when any kind of sugar is made to decom pose by the process which is termed alcoholic fermentation, and it is seldom that there are not other-and probably, in smaller quantities, several other-products formed besides these four. In fact, the different kinds of spirit which are obtained by the process of fermentation and subsequent dis tillation-I mean those kinds of spirit to which no artificial flavouring material is added (gin is a general name given to certain spirits which are favoured by artificial means) such as brandy, rum, the presence of small quantities of volatile suband others owe their distinctive peculiarities to stances which are formed during the process of fermentation, regarding which a good deal has been observed, and several important facts have been collected.

There is another process of fermentation which I must mention, for it is important from its frequent occurrence, and that is a process by which another kind of sugar usually, but sometimes common sugar, is transformed. The substance which most naturally undergoes this fermentation is milk-sugar. These hard lumps in this bottle, which, if you were to take out and taste, you would not imagine to be sugar, are made by the crystallization of the solid substance in whey. The whey is evaporated carefully to a small bulk, and this substance which results is known by the name of milk-sugar. When a solution of this is mixed with cheese, which is the best ferment for the purpose, it gradually turns