For the benefit of correspondents who may wish to make such a lathe, I have deposited the patterns with Mr. Lloyd, of 185, Steelhouse-lane, Birmingham, as he has the patterns of the gearing wheels which suit, but which are no larger than a 5in. head might be made to take. As, however, the power is multiplied 9 to 1 by the wheels, the pulley shown of 7in. diameter, is amply power ful for the 54in. size. Any one wanting a set must mention the breadth of the space between the beds, as these were made for 1ĝin., and one has been altered to 14in., and Mr. Lloyd has permission to supply castings. The patterns are as follows: viz., mandrel-head, pulley, poppet, collar plate and head with socket for hand-rest, cast in one, 4 jaw chuck, face plate, socket for hand-rest, wheel plate for carrying change wheels, tool holder for slide-rest (much approved form, improved from Professor Willis's), cross bar for Clements's driving chuck, three pieces of back stay, see Figs. 2 and 3, Nov. 19, 1869. Nut plate and nut, see p. 20, Vol. XII. The wheels necessary in addition are, two each of 60 and 20, on No. 8 ga uge, for production of which Mr. Lloyd has already the necessary instructions. I found practically the distance of spindles had to be made 5 1-50in. instead of 5in. exactly, which was, perhaps, owing to my not having taken enough off the points of the teeth, but I presume any one fitting up a head-stock, would make trial with a temporary wooden back spindle, and try the gearing before finishing the holes to full size. Let your fly-wheel weigh lcwt. or more. I have also sent a 5in. four jaw chuck, and shall shortly send a 5in. mandrel-head for double gearing, but with the back spindle in this instance, carried in bearings with caps screwed on, the back wheel and pinion being made to slide independently on the spindle itself, which is made quite cylindrical, with a feather along its whole length. sketches sent to "Bierlala" are returned, and are being polished for insertion in the ENGLISH MECHANIC.

J. K. P.

The

[6267.]-GONGS.-The best method to adopt for the remedy of cracked bells or gongs, is to bore a small hole at the innermost end of the crack, then saw along the rupture as far as it goes. This is the most effectual method when economy is studied. I have no doubt it was the sudden expansion of the metal (which being already cracked could not withstand the strain) that caused it to break up.-FLEUR-DE-LIS.

[6272.-ELLIPTICAL CUTTING FRAMES.-I hope the following details will enable "Tometer" to understand the engraving and description of this instrument given at page 358. Should he require further information, I shall be happy to give it. The square steel bar which fits the slide-rest receptacle is formed at the front end with a round flange and hardened nozzle, round which works the gun-metal disc which carries the rest of the instrument. The bar is bored throughout its length with a slightly tapering hole, through which fits tightly a steel spindle, carrying at one end the worm wheel seen in the engraving. At the other end, the wheel of 48 teeth, seen just in front of the revolving disc. This wheel is keyed to the spindle, and does not revolve unless made to do so by means of the worm wheel, and the tangent screw which works in a frame attached to the end of the square bar. The disc, to the back of which is attached by screws a wooden pulley of four grooves of different diameters for the band of the overhead frame, has at the back a central projection, bushed internally with steel to enable it to work round the nozzle of the square bar. The gun-metal flange B at its smaller extremity rests and turns upon a short stem rising from the disc, round which stem works a pinion of 24 teeth gearing with the fixed central wheel. The other and broader end of the flange B rests upon a

POPPET HEAD
SIDE. ELEVATION

FRONT VIEW

stout support attached to the disc, the outer edge of
which support is graduated into 40 divisions, while the
edge of the flange itself, of the same curvature (that of a
circle whose centre is at the point on which the flange
turns), has an index to show the degree of radial eccen-
tricity given to the flange, which can be secured in any
required position by the thumb-screw seen in the
engraving, which passes through a circular slot in the
flange. The flange has opposite the centre of the instru-
ment a projection bushed with steel, through which
works a spindle carrying, keyed to it at its back, a wheel
of 36 teeth, gearing with a similar wheel bolted to the
pinion of 24 teeth, and remaining in gear in all positions
of the flange. The other end of this spindle carries the
eccentric frame and tool-holder A. It will be seen that
as the pinion of 24 teeth has half the number of teeth
of the wheel round which it travels, it must make two
rotations on its own axis for each revolution of the disc
which carries it; and the eccentric frame being con-
nected with it by two wheels of equal power, the frame
and the tool it carries also make two rotations fo: every
one of the disc. The motions being in the proportion
of two to one, and in opposite directions, the point of
the tool describes an ellipse. The diameter of the disc
is 3in. In the description at page 358, the word "real"
in the 23rd line from the bottom, is a misprint for

"radial."-G. C. C.

[6278.)-ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MACHINE.-In all
probability the wire is broken somewhere, or it is pos-
sible the spring at the commutator does not make
proper contact. As there are many causes of failure it
is impossible to answer such a question.-SIGMA.
[6274.]-MERCURY.-The weight of a cubic inch of
this metal is $432-418968 grains, calculated by multiply-
ing the specific gravity (18:596) by the weight of a cubic
inch of water (252-458). If you want an authoritative
statement, you will find a table of specl fic gravities in
any work on chemistry; and the weight of the cubic
inch of water was determined by Act of Parliament in
the year 1824-6 (cap. 74, Geo. IV.).-A. B. B.

The

[6276.]-LATHE APPARATUS, ETC.-"A Country Amateur" wants a good lot of things at once. spindle of the driller runs in two cylindrical collars of hard steel with a narrow shoulder in front of the front collar, exactly like amateur's lathes with sliding or pumping mandrels. The front collar has itself a small shoulder at half its length to prevent it sliding back under any considerable pressure, but the back collar is quite plain inside and out, and is tightly driven into the wrought-iron. A better general arrangement is to drill a hole through the whole length of a square bar of iron as large as the slide-rest will allow, i.e., suppose the top plate of slide-rest to be 9-16 below the centres, then you can have your bar 18-18 14 square, and recess the ends out and drive your collars in, one at each end, and grind them out. My spindle is very thick and heavy, being made as a hollow (female) mandrel, and bored right through, and the drill chuck screws into it with a 9-16 screw. A screw would hold anything in reason.J. K. P.

[6277.]-CHUCK FOR NUT CUTTING.-In answer to "Country Amateur's" request, I must quote Captain Cuttle, and say, "Yea, verily, and so I won't." Describing "useful work that an amateur may undertake" has cost me intely a very great deal of time indeed, both in the ENGLISH MECHANIC and out of it, much more than I have any intention of giving to the subject in future. As an instance, I yesterday (January 18th) wrote the second half of a letter on lathe work, in answer to questions from a gentleman with whom I

made acquaintance through these columns, and I alled eighteen sides of large note-paper, and I think I may say that that letter might be about the eighteenth I have written to him. I think an amateur cannot be better employed than in constructing his own tools; if he is unable to do so, he had better take to some other amusement. I also fancy I may have saved an amateur or two some trouble, both in inventing and designing. If "Country Amateur" will get my address from the Editor, and will write to me straight, I will help him with good will.-J. K. P.

[6279.] CIRCULAR SAWS, ETC,-A very long subject to deal with. Very fully gone into by Holtzapfel, pp. 754 to 782. My cutting frame, described p. 281, Dec. 3, 1869, used in a planing machine, has done a great deal of moulding. The best cutter for this purpose is of the shape of the iron of a moulding plane, cut short and bolted to one side of a square spindle, so as, in revolving, to approach the action of an adze. The mouldings t quire to be deeper in the iron than they appear on the work on account of the santing direction of the iron, es is the case also in a plane of low pitch. Use pear-treeJ. K. P.

[6280.]-HALF-HORSE ENGINE.-I have not working drawings of the engine in question, which has stood si the Polytechnic, for sale, for many years. They used to work it to illustrate a lecture. I have, however, working drawings of a larger one, horizontal, which I will forward, and which only wants the scale reducing to suit a smaller size. There was in the Agricultural Hall-I think last Christmas or the year before-a horizontal engine by Tangye which appears an excel lent model of simplicity and strength, whereas mine has a great many parts, having been fitted regardles of expense.-J. K. P.

[6282.]-NAPHTHALINE.-Large quantities of naph thaline are now used in the artificial manufacture of benzoic acid. The process by which this is effected is as follows:-Naphthaline contains 10 H. If this is boiled in nitric acid for a long time it is supplied with oxygen, and is converted into oxalic and phthalic acids. The equation of this change is, if I remember right) follows:

C10 H8 +4 O2 = Ha Cs H4 04 + H2 Cg Op On allowing the solution to cool phthalic acid is depo sited in patches of scaly thin crystals; these are de solved and neutralized with marble by heating this in a chamber with slacked lime, which must be quite dry, and the whole excluded from air, otherwise the exis tion would go too far, and temperature maintained for some hours of about 644° (340° C.). The salt is con verted by this into calcic benzoate and carbonate. The equation for this would be:Calcic Phthalate.

Lime slaked.

Calcic Benzoate.

2 a 08 H4 04+ Ca → Hg = Ca 207 Hs 1+ Calcic Carbonate.

2 Ca C Og.

If sulphuric acid is added to a solution of calcic benz sulphate of lime is precipitated. The benzoic acid being also insoluble is thrown down with it. From this benzoic acid can be made by drying and subliming it

from the mixture.-A. E. TUCKER.

6284.]-TAKING PLASTER CASTS.-I have always found that a little oil effectually prevents the hair ad beard from sticking to the plaster.-FLEUR DE LIS

[6288.]-LATHE.-TO "J. W. P."-The nose of mandrel of a 5in. double-geared lathe should not be les than lin. diameter. Whitworth puts 1fin., as you wil see in p. 397. This will face off a plate-chuck of the foll diameter that the lathe will take in-viz. 10in.-and therefore, a fortiori, anything smaller. There are lots of lathes, good and bad, to be got in London. If I were obliged to buy one, and had the money, I should esteem one of Whitworth's 5in. at £90 cheap a tool as any. Two at about half that price, me to order in London for personal friends of my ow1, n the last five or six years-one double geared, but not self-acting, and the other not geared, but arranged or sliding and scre cutting-have proved entirely unless to their par chasers, and the latter I remade most entirely. You cannot get quality without pay the price; and as there really is very small profit on the job, your best chance is to go to the firm who make the particular class of lathe that you desire, whether plain, OTD what they have got on stock. If you have facial mental, strong, heavy, screw-cutting, and so on, and s ideas you will have to pay for their being indulged. There are so many lathe-makers that prices are at a

low ebb.-J. K. P.

[6295.]-TYPE.-Use a strong solution of America potash, sold at nearly every oil-shop. I have found this most effectual. If the type is very much clogged with ink, and has been kept standing" any length of time, use the solution at nearly boiling point. A brash is necessary, commonly known among printers as a "re brush." This can be purchased at any place where printer's materials are sold.-J. C. G.

[6295.]-TYPE.-If the ordinary printers lye of potas dissolved in hot water has no effect, try petroleum, allowing the type to remain in it some time-t RYMEA.

[6300.]-QUININE.-The "Cinchona Calisaya," from which this alkaloid is usually prepared, is first rougar powdered, or crushed into small pieces, then pus into a vat (generally lined with lead), with a small quantity of water, and steam thrown through it; this does not efect any solution of the quinine, but simply softens the bark Water is added to the amount of about 8 or 9 times a weight of bark used, and about 2 or 2 per cent of hydrochloric acid (according to the quality of the bas mixed with it; the whole is boiled up for 34 hours, doring which time the quinine, cinchons, and other less lportant bases are dissolved from the bark, and par converted into quinoidine and cinchonidine, which

conversion cannot at presont be presented, but the production of quinoidine seems to be favoured by a larger percentage of hydrochloric acid than that which is necessary for the solution of quinine from the bark. Exposure to sunlight should also be avoided, as this is found to convert many crystallizable alkaloids into the uncrystallizable form; the reason of this remarkable fact is, I think, not known. After the bark has been boiled up the liquor is strained through a coarse cloth, and the bark again treated with two or three, sometimes four, acidulated waters; when all of them are cold, a solution of common washing soda i added, until no further precipitation occurs. Fousel oil is next added, and well stirred into the liquors; this dissolves the percipitated quinine and at the same time separates it from ciuchonine and cinchonidine. The fousel oil is separated from the liquor and about half of it distilled off (if this would pay for the trouble). On cooling the quinine will crystallize nearly pure, and can be rendered quite pure by crystallizing from alcohol. Fousel oil is only resorted to when large quantities of quinine are made, and where it can be used over and over again. When only small quantities are made, perhaps the following is a better method:-After the addition of the washing soda, the precipitate is pressed to remove the colouring liquid, and dissolved in hot methylated alcohol. On cooling, cinchonine crystallizes out, and a fresh quantity is obtained by a second evaporation, the quinine not crystallizing. If sulphuric acid is added, the separation of cinchonine can be rendered complete by evaporating an acid solution of the mixed sulphates; the sulphate of quinine being much less soluble crystallizes first; the neutral and pure alkaloid can be thrown down from a solution of the sulphate of ammonia. Either can be used for the separation of the quinine, which, like fousel oil, floats on the liquors, and carrying with it the quinine only. "C. J. M." (6300), will find those processes resorted to in the manufacture of quinine.-AR. TUCKER.

[6300.]—QUININE.-If "C. J. M." means sulphate of quinine, the salt used in medicine, the British Pharmacopia gives the following:-"Take of yellow cinchona bark, in coarse powder, llb.; hydrochloric acid, 3 uid eunces; solution of soda, 4 pints; distilled water and dilute sulphuric acid, a sufficiency of each. Dilute the hydrochloric acid with 10 pints of the water. Place the cinchona bark in a procelain basin, and add as much dilute sulphuric acid as will render it thoroughly moist. After maceration, with occasional stirring for 24 hours, place the bark in a displacement apparatus, and percolate with the diluted hyrochloric acid until the solution which drops through, is nearly destitute of bitter taste. Into this liquid pour the solution of soda, agitate well, let the precipitate completely subside, decant the supernatant fluid, collect the precipitate on a filter and wash it with cold distilled water until the washings cease to have colour. Transfer the precipitate to a procelain dish, containing a pint of distilled water, and applying to this a steam heat, gradually add dilate sulphuric acid until very nearly the whole of the precipitate has been dissolved, and a neutral liquid has been obtained. Filter the solution while hot through paper, wash the filter with boiling distilled water, concentrate till a film forms on the surface of the solution, and set it aside to

crystallize. The crystals should be dried on filtering paper without the application of heat.-L.

[6300.]-QUININE-Is obtained by boiling the yellow Cinchona bark in sulphuric acid and water, and afterwards treating it with lime and alcohol, when the quinine is precipitated as a white powder.-A. B. B.

ΟΙ

it can scarcely acquire much silver from the plating

QUERIES.

brass and other metals; the proper degree of heat of oven; time required in baking; method of polishing, &c.? Also the proper mixture for producing an intense dead black for metal, that will not chip or rub off, and the mode of application ?-R. T. HARWOOD.

[6317.]-ELECTRICAL QUERY--To what is due, in electricity, the greatest practical results, quantity or tension ?-W. J. [6335.]-MUSICAL BOX.-I have a musical box with the same complaint as " R. O. R.'s" but with this dif [6318.]-SUBSTITUTE FOR YELLOW GLASS.-Iference, some of the tunes are played without any meam about making a portable dark-house (photographic) tallic clicking or jarring, whilst one of the tunes has an and will thank you or any reader to inform me of the accompaniment of jarring and clicking throughout. I best yellow medium for the window, as glass is liable to have cleaned the comb and put oil-silk between comb break. I saw a flexible material such as I want in and foundation, and no cure has followed. Can Jack of all Trades" tell me how to master the difficulty?-W. Thomas' patent box tent. Also, is it possible to remove FRED. ROE. mildew off a lens? I have got a vainable landscape lens with the inner surface spotted with a pale brownish mildew, which must materially lengthen the exposure. By so doing, it will greatly oblige.-J. A. C. MCRRAY. [6319.]-CAMS ON CRANK SHAFT OF DOWNTON'S PUMP.-Would any of our subscribers oblige by giving the rule for striking out the cams on the crank shaft of a Downton's pump? A sketch will greatly assist. P. J.

[6321.]-LATHE MANDREL.-Will "J. K. P." or
any other kind correspondent answer me a few ques:
tions? I wish to know the proper measurement of a
mandrel for a 7ia. screw-cutting foot lathe, angle of
front and back cones, diameter, and width of working
parts at rubbing surfaces; the best kind of steel for
ditto, allowing body of mandrel to be of iron; measure-
ment and number of teeth of back gear wheels and
pinions, diameter of leading screw and pitch of threads,
and measurement of section of bed and thickness of
metal.-D. W.

[6322.]-NUT FOR LEADING SCREW.-I tender my
best thanks to our esteemed correspondent "J. K. P.,"
for his kindness in answering my former queries. Will
he kindly inform me if the nut for a leading screw, four
threads to the inch, is long enough at 2in., which would
of course embrace eight threads; and if a screw, cut
left hand, costs more than a right-hand one? I intend
to work the nut with a cam in slides, as
mended by him September 28, Vol. XII., No. 287, p. 20.

-IGNORANT.

recom

[6927.]-PHOTOGRAPHIC LANTERN SLIDES.What is the best mode of producing these (copies of engravings) to give good blacks upon the screen?-LEX. [6328.]-AUTOTYPE PRINTING.-Will some correspondent give a short description of this process?-LEX. [6329.]-PHOTOGRAPHIC ENLARGEMENTS.-Will "Operator," or some other reader, give me instruction how to enlarge upon paper by the solar light, and also with the use of artificial light ?-LEX.

[6330.]-PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY.-Can any reader give me any information on this subject ?-LEX.

[6331.]-TRANSFER PICTURES FOR LANTERN SLIDES.-By what process are these produced?—LEX.

[6301.] -RECOVERING CYANIDE OF SILVER.-I do not think "Electro-plater" would recover sufficient silver from his "dust" to pay for the trouble. course, I presume the articles are well rinsed in warm water before being placed in the dust to dry; so that solution, and I believe the little that would be found is produced by abrasion. "Electro-plater" can, however, test his dust by the following process:-Well burn in an open crucible or clean iron shovel about a pint or quart of dust in a clear fire, with free access to air, so as to consume the carbon and convert the dust into ashes, which carefully collect, and fuze with some carbonate of soda in a Hessian crucible. Add a little borax, and expose to a strong heat for half an hour, when the silver, if any, will be found in a button at the bottom of the crucible. If it is found worth while to reduce the whole of the dust, it may be conveniently burnt in a furnace similar to the one a plumber uses to his irons, a wood fire being first lighted and fed from the top with the dust, and placed on an iron plate to catch the ashes. I tried some of my dust when it began to get dirty, but found very little silver, not sufficient to induce me to burn a bushel. Perhaps, however, "Electroplater" is in a larger way of business than I am, and not so careful in his rinsings, about which and the reduction of old solutions I can give him a few hints, gained by experience, if required. Will Electroplater" tell me the best place to obtain "scratch-end passing through, and were that collar absent I canbrushes" and "scratch-brush wire;" also what solutions he has found most effective for the solid deposition of gold and silver?-WM. RUFUS.

[6310.]-ELECTRICAL.-The addition of a Winter's ring would increase the spark. A description is given in No. 251, in which, by the bye, is condensed into five columns, nearly everything I know asto the construction and peculiarities of the electro-magnetic machine. -SIGMA.

[6312.]-BICHROMATE BATTERY.-" A Correspondent" will find that the addition of chromic or nitric acid to the bichromate solution in the porous pot does not by any means add to the constancy of the current, but causes the power to fall much more rapidly. The current is of a very high tension for a few minutes, rapidly falling to something less than what would result from a mere bichromate build. The action is not so energetic in the latter form of battery, but the current is more constant,jowing to the fact that the bichromate of potash is more slowly decomposed.-R. M. NETTLETON.

[6336.]-CHOICE OF TELESCOPE.-In your number issued Oet. 14th, 1870, a correspondent, signing himself "B.," speaks of a telescope he possesses that appears to me to give the most satisfactory results, and I have read with interest all correspondence relating to " the choice of telescopes," that has appeared for some time time past in your magazine. I shall be glad of fuller information as to what such a telescope would cost, &c.-T. H. [6337.]-INDUCTION.-TO "INDUCTORIUM."

Query No. 5299 has had no replies. Why will not "Inductorium" give us the benefit he has enjoyed? If he would give detail drawings all other questions would end and his brother electricians would thank him.-RARE

FIED MEDIUM.

[6338.]-BRASS TOPS OF PARAFFINE LAMPS.Would any subscriber instruct me how to stick the brass the composition ?-ONE IN A FIX. tops on the glass bulbs of a paraffine lamp, and what is

[6339.]-SCREWS OF RANGES.-Could any one inform me of a good method of moving the screws in taking kitchen ranges to pieces ?-ONE IN A FIX.

[6343.] DISTILLED WATER AND OILS.-Will some of your readers inform me how to join glass pipes in a still, the pipes being already bent, so that I cau distil the above liquids, though principally the former: whether anything is better than hoiled corks, and should they be shellaced or varnished over; also how much tubing of 3 16in. diameter is required, the steam presflowing through a 6-16in. pipe? I have observed the iron sure being lb. on the inch and the condensing water pipe answer; would such an apparatus do with glass, and what would be the requisite length? An answer as soon as possible will oblige.-JAMES DEATH, Jun.

[6344.]-SUN'S RIGHT ASCENSION AS SEEN FROM MOON.-Mr. Proctor, in his letter 812, No. 296, p. 224, says, "we with our relatively minute motion of revolu tion around the common centre of gravity of the earth and moon have found in the effects of this motion a means of measuring the sun's distance. The corresponding effects in the case of the lunarians would be eighty times as great." May I ask the writer if he will kiudly describe the method by which a supposed

lunarian located on the further side of the moon would determine the position of the sun in right ascension and longitude, both being reckoned as in the case of the earth from the intersection of the moon's equator with the ecliptic ?-W. R. BIRT.

[6345.]-CONCERNING ALMANACS.-What is the meaning and use of the following, which appear in almanacs:-Clock slow, 1m. 41s., or clock fast, 1m. 19s. ? T. W. S.

[6332]-MINERALOGICAL.-I have a lot of metallic
mineral specimens which are not classified, and none of
my acquaintances can give me satisfactory instructions
how it should be done. Under these circumstances I
shall feel greatly obliged if some brother reader would
kindly inform me the order they should be put into a
cabinet that I intend furnishing with complete suites of
the different metallic specimens as I can get them.-round the steam passage be as effectual as the angle
BLOWPIPE,

[6333.]-LATHE QUERIES.-I beg of "J. K. P." the favour of his reply to the following queries respecting Whitworth's lathe:-1. How is the mandrel got into the head-stock? The collar M seems to prevent one not see how the mandrel can be got into its place. 2. chuck end; and if so, do the collars d and e prevent any Is the mandrel parallel through the head-stock at the endlong motion? 3. If the suppositions in the last query are correct, I presume the collar e would receive the thrust when the lathe is used for drilling. Is such an arrangement a good one for taking the back thrust ? 4. Is not 1in. diameter very large for the mandrel screw of a 5in. lathe; and what is the diameter of the mandrel on the collar? Is the screw square or V thread? Will your talented correspondent further permit me to ask whether he has ever contrived any apparatus for cutting true screws in the lathe without the ordinary and expensive guiding screw-I mean screws of short length (say from 6 threads to the inch and din. long as a maximum, to 73 threads to the inch and in, long as a mirium)? I believe Cooke's apparatus, recently referred to in your columns, will do something like this; but Mr. Cooke told me himself that, putting asid: the risk of error from the stretching of the catgut cords, the apparatus referred to is faulty in principle, as equal divisions of an are of a circle will not cut equal divisions

of a chord of that are. I am afraid the above seems a formidable list of queries, but I hope J. K. P.," with his usual courtesy, will favour me with the required parTwo hundred woollen factories have been started in ticulars, which will be useful to many others as well as the Western States of America since 1861. Bismuth is announced as having been discovered in Archer County, Texas.

to-C. A. T.

[6394]-BLACK JAPAN.-Will Godstone Laboratory" enlighten me as to the method of applying it to

of a 10-horse nominal power high-pressure steam engine
[6346.]-SIZE OF ENGINE.-What is the proper size
cylinder, the diameter and length of stroke ?-W. H.
[6347.]-BOILER PRIMING.-Would not an iron ring

iron, say 3in. deep, as it would cause the water to
descend before it could come into contact with the
thoroughfare ?--W. H.

[6348.] ELECTRIC CLOCK.-I feel obliged to Mr. G. Fox for his reply to my queries respecting the electric clock. By a more careful examination of the action of the pallet on the spring I had found out how it acted (5930). But as he states that the armature of the pendubefore I saw his reply in the number for January 6, p. 881, in passes over, and not between, the poles of the electro-magnet, I presume the pallet is attached by a pin through it to the armature in front, and also that the spring is outside of the electro-magnet. Perhaps Mr. Fox will be good enough to state if this is the case. and if the notched piece of steel resting on the spring is in the centre of the arch of the pendulum's vibration or a little to the left or right of it. Perhaps he will also mention size of electro-magnet and number of coils of insulated wire. I presume there is a joint at the extremity of the arm from pendulum that gives motion to ratchet wheel that moves the hands, and that there is joined to it a piece of steel similar to one of the pallets of a common clock which will pass over the wheel easily in one direction and in the return vibration act on the ratchet wheel and bring it round a tooth.-W. BROWNE.

have a 6-horse power engine and boiler, and I want to [6349.]-INCREASING POWER OF ENGINE.-I increase the power. They were new two y ars ago. Cornish boiler, 14 by 4, with dome and water-heater 351b.; horizontal engine-cylinder, 8" diameter; stroke, fired internally; average pressure I have been working 18"; connecting-rod, three times the stroke; fly-wheel, 6" diameter; weight, 134 cwt.; working speed, 85 revolutions; main driving-shaft, 100 revolutions, which must not be exceeded. Will any correspondent kindly pu

The English Mechanic

AND

WORLD OF SCIENCE AND ART. warning, it will be seen that I do not exaggerate

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 3, 1871.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

THE SCIENCE OF THE WEATHER.
By FREDERICK PRATT.

"There is every reason to hope that no very distant period may put us in possession of the key to many of the most intricate meteorological phenomena, and enable us, though not to predict with certainty the state of the weather at any given time or place, yet at least to form something like a probable conjecture as to what will be the general course of the ensuing season -perhaps to prepare us beforehand for violent and long-continued gales of wind, great drought, or extraordinarily wet seasons, &c., in the same manner that our knowledge of the nature and law of the tides, though confessedly imperfect, and in a great measure empirical, yet enables us to announce beforehand unusually high tides."

SIR JOHN HERSCHEL.

ledge which contribute more or less to the comfort, happiness, and general welfare of our race, that portion which is generally classed

case of England alone, represents a loss of several
millions sterling; and when we add to this the
destruction of property by urexpected storms,
and the frightful loss of shipping which occurs
upon our shores every year, and the greater part
of which might be saved by a few hours' timely
the benefits which a perfect system of meteorology
would confer. Yet, alas! in referring to this
science, we have to speak, not of what it does,
but of what it might do; for it is a most melancholy
and lamentable fact that this science is at pre-
sent in a state of chaotic confusion. Whilst
astronomy has progressed with gigantic strides,
and every branch of science has advanced with
renewed vigour and inspiration, meteorology has
made no progress whatever; no laws are known
concerning it, no weather can be predicted for
even three days in advance. The anticipations of
the general public concerning the coming seasons
are actually (in these enlightened days) obliged
to be guided by the abundance or scarcity of cer-
tain kinds of berries, or the instinctive flight of
birds; the agriculturist is reduced either to
his own judgment or the wild legends of the
country side, whilst our own stately East India-
men leave our shores with about as much know-
ledge of the weather they will meet as did the
painted galleys of our ancestors in the days of
the Caesars. The present state of meteorology is
thus described by an able writer, who, in a

says:-"In meteorology there is no great advance
of the
no
to chronicle. It still remains a science without a
head-a chaotic mass of facts, without definite

moved. The consequence was a state of confusion similar to that which now reigns in meteorology. Some planets moved round the sun, that body and a number of others moved round the earth, while the planet Mars traced its ludicrous orbit in epicycles. But soon there arose Copernicus, and he, overcoming this "natural conservatism," at one stroke removed the centre to its proper place, the sun, and restored the system to its sublime simplicity and its path of progress. We have a similar case before us in geology, where we have been puzzled to account for the variations of climate which are known to have prevailed in the same places at different epochs. This again was accounted for by supposing them to be due to a different distribution of the land, &c.

to a cause, in fact, existing in the earth itself; and as a inatter of course, the question made no progress, but became a matter of perplexity and confusion. It was only when the mind took a nobler bound, and assigned the cause to be the different inclination of the earth's orbit,-to a cause, in fact, exterior to the earth-that the matter became clear. And it is this desire to locate all cause of change in ourselves or our abode, which produced the chaos of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy, and has barred the progress both of that science and, in a minor degree, also that of geology, that now stops with a grip of iron the progress of meteorology. Here likewise we witness this "conservatism," in the

BAROMETER

(See Page 458.)

order or arrangement; for though many are | in terrestrial gloom. The consequence is that, as
working at this subject, and some valuable papers
on the Origin of Winds and Storms' have been
published, still no definite progress can be ascer-

under the name of "science" occupies a pro-
minent position. We may say, indeed, that
nearly all those luxuries which were formerly
unattainable or unknown to our ancestors, but
which are now looked upon as the indispensable tained."
necessaries of civilized life, owe their existence It is instructive to inquire, therefore, whether
to the results of scientific research. Electricity, it is possible to account for this strange condition
for instance, has enabled us to condense into our of a science which ought to be fully operating for
daily journals the yesterday's life of the four the protection of our interests, a science too which
quarters of the globe. Geology tells the miner ought to have attained some progress, seeing
where the metallic riches of the earth are most that the Meteorological Department costs the
conveniently and abundantly placed; and the nation a large sum annually. It seems to me
common progress of chemistry, medicine, and possible to point out the cause of this state of
surgery, whilst alleviating our sufferings, has things, and with the more confidence from the
also prolonged our existence. But there is one fact that the only cause to be assigned is the
department of science which, perhaps more than same fault which in times past has proved an
any other, is capable of increasing the comfort effectual bar to the progress of other sciences,
of our every-day lives and contributing in a and the removal of which has marked the period
larger degree to the world's wealth and pros- of their first step towards perfection. This great
perity. This science is meteorology. It is fundamental source of error arises from what may
scarcely necessary to impress even upon the
most unobservant how beneficially this science
may affect our interest, or what a loss the want
of a knowledge of it may inflict upon us. It has
been calculated that the annual loss upon our
farm lands, in consequence of crops being sown
in napropitious weather, or injured from the same
cause during harvest time, amounts to nearly 25
per cent. of the whole produce. This, in the

in the case of the two other instances cited, confusion reigns supreme, meteorology is a "science without a head, a chaotic mass of facts with no definite order or arrangement." The Meteorological Department devotes itself energetically to obtaining (heaven only knows with what object) careful readings of the rainfall; and with regard to the storm warnings, frequently makes up for publishing them 12 hours after the gale has commenced by laudably continuing them 24 hours after it has gone. No weather can be predicted by the system for even three days in advance, and Mr. Glaisher, one of the ablest mathematicians and most experienced observers of the present day, after examining the barometric and thermometric curves of the past 50 years, and analyzing them in every possible way, has been obliged to confess that he could deduce from them absolutely no meteorological law. It is, I believe, proposed to continue this extraordinary investigation another half-century, during which, I suppose, vessels will still continue to break up upon our shores, and crops to be injured and destroyed, for the want of a few hours' timely warn

be termed the "natural conservatism of hu-
manity"-the desire to locate in ourselves or our
abode the mainspring and source of all those
phenomena which affect us, but which ought
rightly to be placed somewhere else, in their
actual source. It was this error which vitiated ing.
the researches of the early astronomers. They In this case the remedy is evident. We must
supposed that the earth was the centre of our cast aside the idea of a terrestrial origin of at-
system, the point round which all else obedientlymospheric disturbances, and seek, as did Coper-

nicus, for the cause elsewhere. This cause must be a celestial one. Able men, abundant means, and half a century of patient investigation, have been devoted to the elucidation of meteorological laws from the terrestrial standpoint, and the failure is now acknowledged to be complete. The only other source to which we may apply ourselves is the celestial one, comprised in the sun, and those giant orbs which are its satellites and our companions. To this source the eyes of eminent men are now beginning to turn, and it was at the last meeting of the British Association at Liverpool, that the idea of ascribing meteorological phenomena to a celestial origin was for the first time boldly advanced in that assembly, for in a paper on "Atmospheric Currents," Mr. J. K. Laughton said, "It is impossible to say why the atmosphere should have this prevailing motion; but if the cause is neither heat, nor the in*fluence of the earth's rotation, nor any agency we can detect on the earth, we are driven almost insensibly to the belief that it must be the result of celestial attraction. Although at present we are unable to master all the details of the manner of motion, the evidence of geographical fact, combined with that of astronomical possibility, justifies us in inclining towards the belief that the motive force for which we are seeking is really the disturbing force of the attraction of the heavenly bodies."

ably expect to witness a recurrence year after following remarkable results. That when the
year of the same course of winds, and of rainy planets Venus and Jupiter are together, the s
and fair weather, even in temperate latitudes, turbed solar area is 1134 in excess, and whentiny
seeing that the apparent course of the sun is pre- are apart a deficiency of 893. In like mate
cisely the same in each successive year, and the when the planets Venus and Mercury are together
proportions of land and water remain the same. there is an excess of 2283, and when they ar
True, the sun does affect us, but it is precisely apart a deficiency of 2355. From this
with the invariable regularity just referred to, for was concluded that planetary influence was the
it produces the effects of spring and autumn, prime disturber of the solar atmosphere. Mz
summer and winter, with just the same exact-W. T. Lynn, also, in an able paper on "The
ness at all times. Yet we are conscious of other Periodicity of the Solar Spots," page 169 of the
irregularities of some magnitude, such as severe present volume of the ENGLISH MECHANIC," s
droughts, long periods of very wet weather, and ports the idea of planetary attraction influenc
of great heat or cold, which cannot obviously be the sun's atmosphere; while Prof. Loomis remarit
ascribed to the sun, as the influence of that body that "a heliocentric conjunction or opposition of
is uniform. The conclusion comes, I may say, Jupiter and Saturn occurs every 99 years, zsi
naturally, to the reflective mind, that, inasmuch that we thus have a period corresponding que
as the four great changes (the seasons) are pro-accurately with the mean period of the marin
duced by the sun, the minor changes must be of the solar spots." Other able men have written
produced by the minor agencies of the planets. to show that many of the smaller maxima of sole
As Fullbrook remarks, in referring to the diver- activity may be shown to coincide with the
sities of the seasons, "It is not unreasonable to movements of other members of the solar systen
suppose that the varying positions of the different From this discovery-and the accumulate
bodies composing the solar system cause such testimony forbids us to doubt the accuracy of the
diversities." In fact, inasmuch as the whole of premises-we arrive at two important fam
the planets occupy different positions, every year, Firstly, that planetary attraction does, infras
with respect to the earth, we have a clue to the atmospheres, even in the case of the vast ee
similar diversity which every season presents, lope of the sun, where the superficial pressure is
to those which precede and succeed it.
immense; and secondly, we learn that the st
To sum up the foregoing facts, we have the spheres are less capable of resisting planetary
following analogies :-
fluence than mass." The planets do not at al
fluence the sun's mass, yet they are capable of
exerting a very powerful influence on his time-
sphere. It follows, therefore, that the atm
sphere is proportionately more sensitive to pla
tary attraction. On the other hand, the ph
attract each other's mass to a considerable extent,
and as we know from the case of the sun the
the attraction is infinitely greater upon at
sphere, planetary influence upon each others
atmospheres must be proportionately more powe
ful. When we consider, therefore, the interse
attractive or disturbing force which the plane
exercise over the earth's mass, and then consider
that the power must be yet greater over the atze
sphere, we are justified in concluding from the
facts also that the force is capable of prod
all those violent atmospheric disturbances whi
characterize the weather.

From these and other hopeful symptoms, we
may premise that prejudice against the system 1. That during the year we have four great
of meteorology from the celestial point of view-weather changes, termed the seasons, caused by
or in other words, "astrono-meteorology "is the sun; and, as the sun's motion and position
fast wearing away, not only in consequence of the is the same year after year, so in like manner
failure of the existing system, but from the modi- are the seasons invariable in their duration.
fications which recent discoveries have enabled 2. That, during the year we have, in addition,
us to introduce into this. It is strange indeed a variety of sudden and transitory changes of a
that any such prejudice should ever have existed, violent nature, caused by the planets, and the
and we can only ascribe it as caused by the pro- nature of which is totally different every year;
ceedings of many ill-informed men who have at and that, inasmuch as the planets differ in their
various times brought forward systems of astro- respective rates of motion, as well as in the rela-
meteorology, based upon no reliable scientific tive extent of their orbits, so, in accordance with
facts. The consequence has been that students the laws of permutation and combination, there
of the weather, and other scientific men, have arise series of totally different positions, in endless
hastily classed all weather science based upon variety; and in like manner are these sudden
planetary influence in the same category with changes different every year, and of equally
them. Fullbrook, an able meteorologist, in his infinite variety.
work on the "Wet and Dry Seasons of England,"
says:-"In our zeal to reject so groundless a
system as astro-meteorology, we have run into
the opposite extreme, and declined to admit of
any external influence, save that of the sun and
moon. Hence it has come to pass that men who,
of all others, are usually furnished with the best
and most extensive data, and are better qualified
to deal with these for the purpose of bringing out
useful results, have not used the means at their
command for the purpose of examining the ques-
tion of planetary influence on the seasons. It
may readily be perceived from the above state-
ment, that the subject has not been investigated
in the fullest sense of the term. Until it is so,
no one can justly assert that planetary influence
has no existence in nature."

In accordance with a generally expressed desire, not only from readers of this journal, but also from several well-known meteorologists, I have much pleasure in proceeding to give a brief résumé of what I believe is at present the most perfect system of meteorology, from a celestial standpoint. Hitherto this system has been chiefly empirical, rather than demonstrable from natural laws, but the past year has disclosed many important facts confirmatory of its chief principles; so that now, although not absolutely perfect, the basis upon which it is formed is capable of demonstration. Although, perhaps, to the majority of persons" experience" would be "of all things most sure," yet it is satisfactory to be able to add to it, the additional assurance of known natural laws. I shall, then, first of all proceed to state the principles upon which this system of astronometeorology is founded. The great fundamental principles are two in number, and may be briefly demonstrated.

The endless diversity of the planetary positions each year thus precludes all possibility of any definite cycle or series, and demonstrates the futility of average investigation or analysis, other than as a measure of the anomaly of the existing seasons or periods under observation.

From the above two cases, similar in every respect in their analogy, I leave my readers to draw their own conclusions, merely drawing at tention to the extraordinary circumstance that meteorologists accept the first, and not the second, although both are exactly alike in the fact and the result.

The second great principle apon which the science of the weather is based is comprised the following proposition :-Secondly, that th planetary influence, i.e., on the earth's atmosphe is greater when the disturbing bodies are in a positions than in others.

If we supposed that the attraction of various planets was of the same intensity thre out their orbits, we should have a constant easily-ascertained disturbing force, the effects which, being felt all round the globe each day, would cause a daily wave-line in the atmo In drawing further proofs of the intimate con- whose path and rate could be ascertained nection between our earth and the sun and almost mathematical precision, whilst the ba planets, we must not omit to mention the dis- meter would exhibit the presence and cost covery made of the close connection of the sun's intensity of this daily wave. Moreover, force with the magnetism of the earth-the mag-planet would exert a continued infinance, they netic storms occurring on both bodies simultane- cause which could produce a variation of this s ously-besides other signs of close sympathy. stant wave would be a conjunction of two or more But in addition to the foregoing, we have to con- planets, when the combined disturbing sider also the known attractive power which each would be exerted. Such conjunctions are, b planet exercises over the other, and which is ever, so very infrequent, that, if they were th powerful enough, in many cases, to draw them sole cause of barometric variations, such a widely from their normal orbits. It follows, tions would be comparatively rare. On loa therefore, that if the planets exercise this however, at the ordinary monthly records of influence on each other's mass, and cause so barometer, of which Diagram 1 will serve much disturbance of motion, their influence must specimen, we cannot fail to be struck by the f be still greater on the light and volatile at that the barometer curve exhibits a number mospheres. This influence on mass is never ques- disturbances of a very decided nature, much to tioned, but that any influence is exerted on numerous ever to be due to planetary conj atmosphere has always been strenuously denied. tions. Such being the case, it is evident t Fortunately, the past year has witnessed a com- some other powerful cause is operating to prod plete corroboration of the idea that planetary at them, and that such cause operates comp traction does enormously influence atmospheres, a tively frequently. Moreover, as we have cones discovery of so much importance as to be worth sively shown that atmospheric disturbances more than a passing notice. Mr. Balfour Stewart, due to planetary influence, it is evident that the in a paper read before the British Association frequent effect of intense disturbance, as exhibi Firstly. That all the planets exercise an at-in 1862 or 1863, remarked, "that after an inspec- by the barometer curve, is also due to their w ractive influence on the earth's atmosphere. tion of all the pictures obtained by the Kew ence. Therefore, as this disturbance cannot Meteorologists have, whilst denying planetary heliograph, he was inclined to think that the in- due to their attraction solely, because that forte nfluence, yet admitted the influence of the sun is constant, neither to their conjunction, bec o some little extent. They consider that the that is infrequent, we are driven to ascribe to air resting upon different portions of the terressome other peculiarity in their position trial globe becomes heated by the sun's rays, respect to the earth. This peculiarity has he and, being rarefied, ascends, and thus sets in discovered to be of the following nature:motion certain atmospheric currents, to which when a planet occupies an angular position of succeed all the different phenomena of wind, with respect to the earth, or that portion of temperature, and rainfall observed. But it is circle containing any number of complete easily to be seen that if the sun's heat were angles (such as 60, 90, 120, &c.), it then exte directly or indirectly the sole cause of the differits most intense attractive force upon est ent conditions of the weather, we might reasonatmosphere.

crease and decrease of the solar spots was pos-
sibly connected with the influence of the nearer
planets." However, no further confirmation of
this idea appeared at the time, but Mr. Balfour
Stewart, and another distinguished astronomer,
Mr. De la Kue, set to work to measure the area of
every spot which had appeared on the sun's sur-
face since 1832 to the present time, making use,
for the purpose, of the observations of Schwabe and
Carrington, as well as those taken at Kew.
From these measurements they have obtained the