greater distance in the long line of descent from their early semihuman progenitors.

Various other anomalies in man, more or less analogous to the foregoing, have been advanced by different authors, as cases of reversion; but these seem not a little doubtful, for we have to descend extremely low in the mammalian series, before we find such structures normally present.11

In man, the canine teeth are perfectly efficient instruments for mastication. But their true canine character, as Owen12 remarks, "is indicated by the conical form of the crown, which "terminates in an obtuse point, is convex outward and flat or "sub-concave within, at the base of which surface there is a feeble prominence. The conical form is best expressed in the "Melanian races, especially the Australian. The canine is more deeply implanted, and by a stronger fang than the incisors." Nevertheless, this tooth no longer serves man as a special weapon for tearing his enemies or prey; it may, therefore, as far as its proper function is concerned, be considered as rudimentary. In every large collection of human skulls some may be found, as Häckel13 observes, with the canine teeth projecting considerably beyond the others in the same manner as in the anthropomorphous apes, but in a less degree. In these cases, open spaces between the teeth in the one jaw are left for the reception of the canines of the opposite jaw. An interspace of this kind in a Kaffir skull, figured by Wagner, is surprisingly wide.** Considering how few are the ancient skulls which have been examined, compared to recent skulls, it is an interesting fact that in at least three cases the canines project largely; and in the Naulette jaw they are spoken of as enormous.

41 A whole series of cases is given by Isid. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, Hist. des Anomalies,' tom. iii. p. 437. A reviewer (Journal of Anat. and Physiology,' 1871, p. 366) blames me much for not having discussed the numerous cases, which have been recorded, of various parts arrested in their development. He says that, according to my theory, 66 every transient condition of an 66 organ, during its development, is "not only a means to an end, but 66 once was an end in itself." This does not seem to me necessarily to hold good. Why should not variations occur during an early period of development. having no relation to reversion. vet such variations aught be preserved and accumulated.

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if in any way serviceable, for instance, in shortening and simplifying the course of development? Aud again, why should not injurious abnormalities, such as atrophied or hypertrophied parts, which have no relation to a former state of existence, occur at an early period, as well as during maturity?

42 Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. 1368, p. 323.

43 Generelle Morphologie,' 1866, B. ii. s. clv.

44 Carl Vogt's 'Lectures on Man, Eng. translat. 1864, p. 151.

45 C. Carter Blake, on a jaw from La Naulette, Anthropolog Review,' 1867, p. 295. Schaaft bausen, ibid. 1868, p. 426,

Of the anthropomorphous apes the males alone have their canines fully developed; but in the female gorilla, and in a less degree in the female orang, these teeth project considerably beyond the others; therefore the fact, of which I have been assured, that women sometimes have considerably projecting canines, is no serious objection to the belief that their occasional great development in man is a case of reversion to an ape-like progenitor. He who rejects with scorn the belief that the shape of his own canines, and their occasional great development in other men, are due to our early forefathers having been provided with these formidable weapons, will probably reveal, by sneering, the line of his descent. For though he no longer intends, nor has the power, to use these teeth as weapons, he will unconsciously retract his "snarling muscles" (thus named by Sir C. Bell), so as to expose them ready for action, like a dog prepared to fight.

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Many muscles are occasionally developed in man, which are proper to the Quadrumana or other mammals. Professor Vlacovich examined forty male subjects, and found a muscle, called by him the ischio-pubic, in nineteen of them; in three others there was a ligament which represented this muscle; and in the remaining eighteen no trace of it. In only two out of thirty female subjects was this muscle developed on both sides, but in three others the rudimentary ligament was present. This muscle, therefore, appears to be much more common in the male than in the female sex; and on the belief in the descent of man from some lower form, the fact is intelligible; for it has been detected in several of the lower animals, and in all of these it serves exclusively to aid the male in the act of reproduction.

Mr. J. Wood, in his valuable series of papers,48 has minutely described a vast number of muscular variations in man, which resemble normal structures in the lower animals. The muscles

46 The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, pp. 110, 131.

Quoted by Prof. Canestrini in the Annuario,' &c., 1867, p. 90.

48 These papers deserve careful study by any one who desires to learn how frequently our muscles vary, and in varying come to resemble those of the Quadrumana. The following references relate to the few points touched on in my text: Proc. Royal Soc. vol. xiv. 1865, pp. 379-384; vol. xv. 1866,

pp. 241, 242; vol. xv. 1867, p. 544; vol. xvi. 1868, p. 524. I may here

add that Dr. Murie and Mr. St. George Mivart have shewn in their Memoir on the Lemuroidea (Tran act. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vii. 1869, p. 96), how extraordinarily variable some of the muscles are in these animals, the lowest members of the Primates. Gradations, also, in the muscles leading to structures found in animals still lower in the scale are numerous in the Lemuroidea.

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which closely resemble those regularly present in our nearest allies, the Quadrumana, are too numerous to be here even specified. In a single male subject, having a strong bodily frame, and weil-formed skull, no less than seven muscular variations were observed, all of which plainly represented muscles proper to various kinds of apes. This man, for instance, had on both sides of his neck a true and powerful "levator claviculæ,” such as is found in all kinds of apes, and which is said to occur in about one out of sixty human subjects. Again, this man had 66 a special abductor of the metatarsal bone of the fifth digit, such as Professor Huxley and Mr. Flower have shewn "to exist uniformly in the higher and lower apes." I will give only two additional cases; the acromio-basilur muscle is found in all mammals below man, and seems to be correlated with a quadrupedal gait,5° and it occurs in about one out of sixty human subjects. In the lower extremities Mr. Bradley 51 found an abductor ossis metutursi quinti in both feet of man; this muscle had not up to that time been recorded in mankind, but is always present in the anthropomorphous apes. The muscles of the hands and arms-parts which are so eminently characteristic of man-are extremely liable to vary, so as to resemble the corresponding muscles in the lower animals.52 Such resemblances are either perfect or imperfect; yet in the latter case they are manifestly of a transitional nature. Certain variations are more common in man, and others in woman, without our being able to assign any reason. Mr. Wood, after describing numerous variations, makes the following pregnant remark: "Notable departures from the ordinary type of the muscular "structures run in grooves or directions, which must be taken "to indicate some unknown factor, of much importance to a comprehensive knowledge of general and scientific anatomy."53

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49 See also Prof. Macalister in 'Proc. R. Irish Academy,' vol. x. 1868, p. 124.

50 Mr. Champneys in 'Journal of Anat. and Phys.' Nov., 1871, p. 178. 51 Journal of Anat. and Phys.' May, 1872, p. 421.

52 Prof. Macalister (ibid. p. 121) has tabulated his observations, and finds that muscular abnormalities are most frequent in the fore-arms, secondly, in the face, thirdly, in the foot, &c.

53 The Rev. Dr. Haughton, after giving (Proc. R. Irish Academy,' June 27, 1864, p. 715) a remark

That this unknown factor is reversion to a former state of existence may be admitted as in the highest degree probable.54 It is quite incredible that a man should through mere accident abnormally resemble certain apes in no less than seven of his muscles, if there had been no genetic connection between them. On the other hand, if man is descended from some ape-like creature, no valid reason can be assigned why certain muscles should not suddenly reappear after an interval of many thousand generations, in the same manner as with horses, asses, and mules, dark-coloured stripes suddenly reappear on the legs, and shoulders, after an interval of hundreds, or more probably of thousands of generations.

These various cases of reversion are so closely related to those of rudimentary organs given in the first chapter, that many of them might have been indifferently introduced either there or here. Thus a human uterus furnished with cornua may be said to represent, in a rudimentary condition, the same organ in its normal state in certain mammals. Some parts which are rudimentary in man, as the os coccyx in both sexes, and the mammæ in the male sex, are always present; whilst others, such as the supracondyloid foramen, only occasionally appear, and therefore might have been introduced under the head of reversion. These several reversionary structures, as well as the strictly rudimentary ones, reveal the descent of man from some lower form in an unmistakable manner.

Correlated Variation.-In man, as in the lower animals, many structures are so intimately related, that when one part varies so does another, without our being able, in most cases, to assign any reason. We cannot say whether the one part governs the other, or whether both are governed by some earlier developed

possibility of ether of his first propositions. Prof. Macalister has also described (Proc. R. Irish Acad.' vol. x. 1864, p. 138) variations in the flexor pollicis longus, remarkable from their relations to the same muscle in the Quadrumana.

54 Since the first edition of this book appeared, Mr. Wood has published another memoir in the Phil. Transactions,' 1870, p. 83, on the varieties of the muscles of the human neck, shoulder, and chest. He here shows how extremely variable these muscles are, and how often and how

which closely resemble those regularly present in our nearest allies, the Quadrumana, are too numerous to be here even specified. In a single male subject, having a strong bodily frame, and weil-formed skull, no less than seven muscular variations were observed, all of which plainly represented muscles proper to various kinds of apes. This man, for instance, had on both sides of his neck a true and powerful "levator claviculæ," such as is found in all kinds of apes, and which is said to occur in about one out of sixty human subjects.19 Again, this man had 66 a special abductor of the metatarsal bone of the fifth digit, such as Professor Huxley and Mr. Flower have shewn " to exist uniformly in the higher and lower apes." I will give only two additional cases; the acromio-basilar muscle is found in all mammals below man, and seems to be correlated with a quadrupedal gait, and it occurs in about one out of sixty human subjects. In the lower extremities Mr. Bradley 51 found an abductor ossis metatarsi quinti in both feet of man; this muscle had not up to that time been recorded in mankind, but is always present in the anthropomorphous apes. The muscles of the hands and arms-parts which are so eminently characteristic of man-are extremely liable to vary, so as to resemble the corresponding muscles in the lower animals.52 Such resemblances are either perfect or imperfect; yet in the latter case they are manifestly of a transitional nature. Certain variations are more common in man, and others in woman, without our being able to assign any reason. Mr. Wood, after describing numerous variations, makes the following pregnant remark: "Notable departures from the ordinary type of the muscular "structures run in grooves or directions, which must be taken "to indicate some unknown factor, of much importance to a comprehensive knowledge of general and scientific anatomy.'

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