ablest Princes of his age. He was obliged to give up the greater part of Pomerania: but he added to his dominions the important districts and towns of Halberstadt, Minden, and Magdeburg, which had formerly been independent states under the r Prince-Bishops. He also obtained fron the Polish King a release from the feudal subjection, which Prussia had so long been under to the crown of Poland. This was effected in 1657. We see thus that the existence of Prussia as an independent state is little more than two centuries old.

Joachim I. of Hohenzollern was Elector of part of that war it suffered still worse Brandenburg; and his cousin Albert was from the Swedes-who, from being the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights. Elector's allies had become his enemies, on Both these Hohenzollerns adopted the account of a dispute for the possession of Lutheran tenets; and so did many of the Pomerania. But the Elector Frederick Teutonic Knights, but not all. Luther William, who ruled Brandenburg and declared the Teutonic order to be a thing| Prussia for many years after the close of serviceable to neither God nor man. The the Thirty Years' War, was one of the Grand Master Albert was of this opinion; and he declared that the order was dissolved; but he contrived to make it serviceable to himself. With the sanction and aid of his feudal lord, King Sigismund of Poland, he declared himself thenceforth Hereditary Grand Duke of Prussia. Those of the resident knights, that agreed with him, became feudal proprietors of their estates under the Grand Duke as their immediate lord. Some of the knights objected to the change, and were expelled. They appealed to the Emperor; and the audacious Grand Duke, who thus secularized an ecclesiastical province, and who set himself up as a Lutheran temporal prince in the country, where he had been a Roman Catholic, half-military, half-sacerdotal Grand Master, was condemned by the Emperor Charles V., and put to the ban of the Empire. But the sentence could never be executed. Grand Duke Albert of Hohenzollern held and ruled Prussia firmly for forty years; and when he died, his son, Albert Frederick, became Grand Duke in his stead. But on the decease of Grand Duke Albert Frederick, in 1618, the direct lineage of Duke Albert of Prussia failed, and the inheritance of the Duchy devolved on the Brandenburg branch of the Hohenzollerns. About the same time the Elector's son acquired by marriage the heritages of the Duchies of Cleves and Juliers on the Rhine. The House of Brandenburg, thus aggrandized, was viewed with jealousy and disfavour by the House of Hapsburg. "Austria could not tolerate the formation of a German power which approached more nearly to herself in importance than any other; and it added greatly to the anxiety and enbarrassment of the restorers of Roman Catholicism that this new power was a Protestant one, and that it would now afford a fresh support to the Protestant party throughout the Empire, which hitherto had been wavering and weak."* The territories of the Elector of Brandenburg underwent terrible devastations by the imperialist armies in the early part of the Thirty Years' War; and in the last

The policy of this Elector, Frederick William, deserves to be studied. It was steadily pursued by him for forty years, and it has been maintained with alno.t equal consistency by his successors. That policy was to keep up and augment the military power of the state; and to this purpose all other considerations were made subordinate. The provinces, which composed Frederick William's dominions had, each of them, their estates and meetings of estates, possessing considerable, though ill-defined, constitutional powers. Frederick William did not wish to abolish these; but he was determined to have and maintain the autocratic power of doing "that which it pertaineth to a righteous prince to do." His manual as to princely rights and duties is said to have been a treatise by a jurist named Seckendorf, which lays down that, "though it is proper for a prince to treat his subjects as freeborn people, to listen to the advice of his estates, and to keep contracts made by him with them, still the sovereign power of the prince oversteps everything. The general good of all should be the object of government; but to insure this the prince must be strong enough to make his rule beneficially felt by all his subjects; he must possess the means of repressing disobedient subjects, foreign foes, and all such as do acts of violence."† Without entering into details of Frederick William's constitutional or unconstitutional struggles with his estates, it may be enough to observe that he succeeded as to the two cardinal points, of establishing a numerous and well-appointed standing army, and of

Ranke's "Memoirs of the House of Branden* Ranke's" Memoirs of the House of Branden- burg," vol. i., book i, chap. iii. burg," vol. i., p. 25. ↑ Ibid., vol. i., p. 251, n.

raising money from his subjects by his own sovereign authority. Towards the end of the disputes between him and his diets, the utmost that the estates asked of him was, that they should have a consulting voice before new taxes were introduced.

Frederick William recruited his armies from almost every country in Europe; but the main part, the substantial part of his military force, consisted of the younger sons of peasants, who were enrolled in the ranks by a compulsory levy; each regiment having a particular district assigned to it, out of which it should regularly keep up its numbers.* The Prussian King thought, like the Romans of old, that a peasantry furnishes the best troops. The increase of the agricultural population and the improvement of their condition became therefore objects which Prussian rulers, and especially Frederick William I., pursued with great earnestness, in order that there never might be wanting a supply of hardy peasant soldiers:

"Masculorum rustica militum

Proles."

His successor kept up the warlike fame of the Brandenburgs, and attained the long-desired object of raising the House of Hohenzollern from electoral to kingly dignity. On the 18th of January, 1701, with the assent and concession of the Emperor, he placed a regal crown on his head with solemn ceremonial, and became Frederick I., King of Prussia. The new kingdom under him took an honourable though subordinate part in the War of the Spanish Succession; and the "undaunted steadfastness" of the Prussian regiments won the warm praises of Eugene and Marlborough. In 1713, Frederick William I. ascended the Prussian throne. He had been brought up Frederick I., in 1709, had prohibited the in the campaigns of the Netherlands; and nobles from annexing to their domains the he admired, even more intensely than his lands which their agricultural serfs held predecessors, military power, as the great under them. In 1739, Frederick William glory of a sovereign. He bent his whole I. ordained that no peasant should be attention to the increase and improved or- evicted from his holding, except for good ganization of his army. This required and substantial reason; and even then the money; and Frederick William became (as lord of the manor was bound to replace he said of himself) his own finance minis- the evicted man by another tenant. The ter, as well as his own field marshal. Cyn- very remarkable legislation of Prussia durically simple in his private habits, parsimo-ing the last two centuries, in respect of nious in all public expenditure that did not her agricultural serfs and her system of immediately benefit the army, an excellent accountant, and an indefatigable man of business, King Frederick William succeeded in keeping a well-filled treasury, at the same time that he maintained an army, large beyond all usual proportion to the population of the country, and better equipped than any other on the continent of Europe.*

"A union of German provinces, which altogether did not number more than two millions bond of connection among themselves, seemed, when compared with the kingdom of France, extending from the Pyrenees to the upper Rhine, and from the Mediterranean to the ocean, or with the neighbouring boundless empire of Russia, with the inexhaustible Austria, or with England. mistress of the seas, a very insignificant state. The only thing which gave to Prussia a certain rank among the powers of Europe, and a certain consideration in the world, was her military force. It was reckoned that France had at that time 160,000, and Russia 130,000 regular troops; but a great part of the former were employed in the garrisons of the numerous fortresses; while in the latter the men actually under arms were very far from corresponding with the army lists. The Austrian army was computed at 80,000 to 100,000 men; but of doubtful efficiency, and dispersed through the various provinces. What Frederick William I. did for Prussia in this rivalry of forces may be instantly measured, when we recollect that he increased the army from 33,000 men, which placed her on a military level with Sardinia

and a half of inhabitants, and had not even any

land tenure, † has unquestionably been prompted by the desire of augmenting her military strength. I may mention here, though out of chronological order, that Frederick the Great, in 1749, when he was preparing for the foreseen renewal of his struggle with Austria, made a law expressly prohibiting all absorption of pea3ant lands; and I may refer here to the measures for abolishing personal serfdom, and otherwise ameliorating the condition of the small occupants of land, which Stein and Hardenburg introduced, when they were raising Prussia from the misery and degradation into which she was sunk for a time by her defeat at Jena in 1806.

or Saxon-Poland, to more than 80,000 men, i.e., nearly to that of Austria.

"The king's care was equally bestowed on the several arms. He increased the cavalry by more than half, and the artillery in still greater propor tion. He suffered no discrepancies between the lists and the actual corps, and the fortresses occupied but a proportionately small number of men; taking the very lowest calculation, he had 72.000 men ready at a moment's warning, or with the smallest possible delay, to take the field "- Ranke's "Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg," vol. i., p. 420. See Ranke, vol. i., p. 422.

See in the Parliamentary Blue Book, 1869, "Land Tenures in Europe," the report of Mr. Harris Gastrill, on Prussia.

Frederick William I. engaged in 1715 of Silesia was confirmed to the Prussian in a war with Sweden, the results of which sovereign, who, in return, recognized were very advantageous for his kingdom. Maria Theresa's husband, Francis I. of Prussia acquired by it the greater part of Lorraine, as Emperor. Pomerania, and the sole command of the river Oder; and an end was now put to the ascendency which Sweden had previously exercised on the German side of the Baltic.

But our conquest of Canada in the Seven Years' War crushed for ever those projects of French ambition. It made the FrancoCeltic inhabitants of America the inferiors, instead of becoming the lords and masters of the English settlers. It insured truth to the announcement which Montesquieu, a few years before, had made to the European world, "That a free, prosperous, and great people was forming in the forests of America, which England had sent forth her sons to inhabit."

thrusting back the upstart House of she possessed Louisiana southward; and Brandenburg to its old inferior position in her rulers were labouring zealously, and, the north-east of Germany, the Empress as it appeared, successfully, to extend listened willingly to the counsels of her their colonies and dependencies along the statesman Kaunitz, who recommended that whole course of the Mississippi, so as to Austria should ally herself not only with gird in, with a band of hostile provinces, Russia, but also with Austria's ancient the thirteen British Colonies, that were rival, France. The Saxons and the scattered along the Atlantic coast, and Swedes also viewed with displeasure and finally to subjugate or exterminate their alarm the growing importance of Prus- inhabitants. sia, and had received old injuries from her, which they were eager to avenge. It seemed impossible that the new kingdom, however well drilled her armies might be, and however well they might be commanded, could resist the assaults of France, Austria, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden united. Prussia's only allies on the continent were Hanover, Brunswick, and Hesse. It was true that the Elector of Hanover was also King of England; but it was thought that the English would be fully occupied by their own renewed war American historians* rightly consider with France. When the treaty of Aix-le- the Seven Years' War as the commenceChapelle closed in 1748 the War of the ment of American independence; for our Austrian Succession, in which both Eng-victories in that war saved their counland and France had taken part, the ri- try from sinking into the ignominious val claims of the two nations in North wretchedness of a province of the old America and in India had been left unset- French monarchy. And not only are the tled. Hostilities between their colonists campaigns, which actually took place on and garrisons in the Far East and in the the American continent itself, material to Far West had never entirely ceased; and, the history of the United States; but the in June 1755, the English, by way of re- progress and the varying fortunes of the prisals for alleged French aggressions, cap- contemporaneous strife in Germany are tured a large number of French merchant- also properly treated as essential portions men and two ships of the line; an act that of the same great narrative. If Frederick made formal and declared war within a and his European allies had been crushed short period inevitable. by their confederate enemies in the continental war, the English ministry could have sent out no new expeditions; they could not even have maintained any troops across the far Atlantic. On the other hand, France, if victorious in Germany, could have reinforced her armies in Canada into certain and overwhelming superiority. The English and the colonists of the time Two great issues were raised and settled well knew that this was the fact. in the Seven Years' War. The first, which must conquer Canada in Germany," were more immediately concerned Prussia, was the words of our great minister Pitt; and whether a new first-class power, and that a expressions no less emphatic were used by Protestant power, should be established in the chief men of thought and action in Northern Germany, notwithstanding the British America. Every victory, which opposition of the House of Hapsburg. The Frederick gained, was hailed with as gratesecond issue (which more directly affected ful rejoicings in Boston and New York as England), was whether the English or the in London. This sympathy of England French race should become predominant and of English America with Prussia a in North America. It is to be remembered that less than 120 years ago France seemed more likely than England to become the ascendant power in the New World. The Canadas and Cape Breton belonged to her in the north of the American continent;olution," vol. i. VOL. XIX. 878

The alliance between Austria and France brought about, on the other side, a close connection between Prussia and England, which was all the stronger, because King George II. of England firmly believed that it was only by the help of Prussia that his Hanoverian dominions could be defended against French invasion and conquest.

LIVING AGE.

"We

century ago was also made more fervent by the semi-religious character which the Seven Years' War assumed. Catholic

See Bancroft's "History of the American Rev.

France and Catholic Austria were leagued | from his central position in Silesia and together on one side, and their bigoted Saxony Frederick darted out, as opportu hate of Protestantism was notorious and active.

The negotiations which were carried on between the courts of St. Petersburg, Stockholm, Vienna, Dresden, and Paris for a combined attack on Prussia did not escape the vigilance of Frederick. He was utterly unscrupulous about such formalities as expostulating, or asking for explanations, or even declaring war, before he struck a blow, if he saw a good opportunity of striking hard before his adversary was fully prepared, or even aware that a blow was impending.

nity offered, on the hostile bodies that were operating in other provinces. But when the Prussian King thus advanced with his main army against one of his numerous enemies, he unavoidably gave opportunities for others to inflict severe injuries on his power. Great part of Saxony was rent from him; and in the chequered campaigns of 1757 he nearly lost Silesia, a loss which would have been irreparable.

I have chosen for description the battle of Leuthen, one of the battles of this, the second year of the war, on account of the critical vicissitudes of that twelvemonth, and because Frederick's success on the field of Leuthen, when he seemed to be on the brink of ruin, was such as (in the words of Napoleon) "to restore all, and to give to the King of Prussia immortal glory." *

In the spring of 1757, Frederick made a bold and rapid march into Bohemia, and defeated an Austrian army near Prague. The beaten troops took shelter within the walls of Prague, and were blockaded there by the Prussians. Another Austrian force, under Marshal Daun, advanced, and took up a strong position at Kolin. Frederick attacked them there, but was completely defeated, with the loss of 15,000 men. Daun's activity in following up his victory was not equal to the skill and firmness which he had shown in gaining it. Frederick was able to retire with the wrecks of his army, and to unite them with the corps, which had been left in observation before Prague.

Frederick had in 1756 not only a large number of soldiers, amounting to 120,000, enrolled on his army lists, but he had them actually under arms, well trained, well disciplined, well officered, and well organized. Infantry, artillery and cavalry, all were ready in due proportion for combined action, whenever their royal generalissimo should direct them to cross the frontier. Besides these disposable troops, he had his fortresses all effectively armed and garrisoned, and he had ample and well-arranged depôts and magazines for repairing the losses of men and matériel, which his troops in the field against an enemy might be expected to sustain. Careful organization before hostilities, and skilful alertness during hostilities, were the great secrets of Frederick's success in the war. He began it in August 1756, by suddenly leading an army, 64,000 strong, into Saxony. He took Dresden; he blockaded the Saxon troops in Pirna; repulsed an Austrian army that advanced to their relief, and The exultation of Austria at the victory compelled them to capitulate on the 14th of Kolin was unbounded. A new order of of October. knighthood was instituted, of which MarSaxony and Silesia, but especially Sile-shal Daun was one of the first chief dignisia, became the core of Frederick's power during the war. In and along Saxony and Silesia he manoeuvred and fought with unequalled skill, celerity, and resolution against the enormously superior armies, that came round against him on every side, and seemed certain to crush him, or at least to wear down his comparatively scanty forces. He was obliged to abandon the remote provinces of his kingdom. His capital, Berlin, was repeatedly pillaged, and more than once occupied by Russian invaders. But as long as he could retain Silesia, Frederick judged the struggle with his enemies to be maintainable; and the result of the war proved the soundness of his judgment. His warfare was far from being merely defensive. It consisted frequently of sudden and daring attacks: and

taries. Not only the court of Vienna, but the camps of the Imperialist generals, were occupied for some weeks with rejoicings and thanksgivings. At last the main force of the Austrians, under Prince Charles of Lorraine and Marshal Daun, moved in the direction of Silesia. Frederick gave part of his army to one of his Generals, the Prince of Bevern, and sent him to defend Silesia, while the King himself, with the scanty remnant of his force, marched rapidly into Thuringia, towards the River Saale, where his presence was now urgently needed. A French army, under the Marquis of Soubise, strengthened by a large force of Imperialists, was advancing

"Le Roi s'immortalise, et repare tout en gag nant la bataille de 5 Decembre."- Napoleon's Me moires, vol. v., p. 358.