It is a pity that Lenormant does not tell us anything about the significance of the demon who holds this world-picture in his clutches. It would be interesting to understand the thought of the Chaldean artist when giving such prominence to the Evil One.

Religious symbols, formulas, and rites are, as a rule, punctiliously preserved even after a radical change of the fundamental ideas that are embodied therein. Thus this bronze plate may preserve features of a world-representation long gone by; and the simplest explanation seems to be that we must regard the monster holding the world-picture as the deity of evil, who in the period when religion still consisted merely in the fear of evil, was worshipped as the actual prince of the world, and whose wrath was atoned by bloody sacrifices.

Judging, by analogy, from the religious evolution of other nations, we must assume that the original form of worship among the Accadians was as much demonolatrous as it is at a certain stage of civilisation among all savage tribes. If this view should prove to be correct, the Chaldean bronze plate of the monster holding in its claws the world would be the connecting link between the very dawn of religious notions with the foundation of Buddhism, the first among the historical religions now extant that insists on the close relation of religion to morality, proclaiming that salvation from evil can be attained only by him who walks on the noble eightfold path of righteousness.

NORTHERN BUDDHISM.

The Buddhism of Tibet is not yet sufficiently explored on account of the inaccessibility of the country, but it is safe to say that its demonology is highly developed and shows traces of strong Hindu influences. Prominent among the evil spirits is mKha'sGrôma, who is commonly identified with the Goddess Kali of the Hindus, and is represented as a frightful monster with a leonine head, surrounded by a halo of flames and ready to devour everything she sees.

The religious conditions of China are radically different from

ours.

Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism exist peacefully side by side, and there is scarcely a home in the country where the customary homage would not be paid to Lao-Tsze and Confucius as

well as to Buddha. Indeed, there are numerous illustrations in which these three great masters are together represented as dominating the moral life of China. (See Open Court, No. 489, p. 90.)

In Japan the conditions are similar, except that there Buddhism is more popular and at the same time better represented than in China. Taoism exists in the country of the rising sun only as a

MEIFU, THE DARK TRIBUNAL. (Reproduced from Karma.)

philosophy in the pure form of Lao-Tsze's teachings; yet the aboriginal nature-worship of the country, including the observation of patriotic festivals, is still preserved in Shintoism, which has of late. been declared to be the official state religion of the country.

The folklore of the Chinese and Japanese was naturally embodied in the mythology of Buddhism, and we find therefore in their descriptions of Hell the figures of Emma, the stern judge of Meifu, the dark tribunal; of Kongo, the sheriff, and all the terrible staff of bailiffs, torturers, and executioners, among whom Gozu, the steer-head, and Mezu, the horse-head, are never missing. By the side of the judge's desk stands the most perfect mirror imaginable, for it reflects the entire personality of every being. Since man's personality, according to the Buddhistic soul-conception, is constituted by the deeds done during life, the glass makes apparent all the words, thoughts, and actions of the delinquent who is led before

If good

it; whereupon he is dealt with according to his deserts. deeds prevail, he is rewarded by being reincarnated in a higher state of existence, be it on earth, or in the Western Paradise, or in one of the heavens of the gods; or, if bad deeds prevail, he sinks into lower spheres, in which case he must go back to life in the shape of that creature which represents his peculiar character; or if he has been very wicked, he is doomed to hell, whither he is carried in the ho nokuruma, the fiery cart, the conveyance of the infernal regions. Only if he has attained to Buddhahood, he is released from further reincarnation and enters into Nirvana.